19th-Century-English-Literature-munotes

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1 MODULE - I
1
THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL (1798 -1832):
BACKGROUND
PART - I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction to English Romanticism
1.1.1 General Causes of English Romanticism
1.1.2 Industrial Revolution
1.1.3 Agricultural Revolution
1.1.4 American Revolution
1.1.5 French Revolution
1.1.6 Influence of Rousseau and French Revolution
1.1.7 Disillusionment of the Enlightenment Values of Reason
1.1.8 Influence of German Romanticism
1.2 Romanticism as a Reaction to Neo -classicism
1.3 Conclusion
1.4 Questions
1.5 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit the learners will be able to:
1. Romanticism as a artistic and literary movement of the 19th century
English literature
2. Identify the general causes of English romanticism
3. Examine the contribution and impact of various movements on the
romantic revival movement
4. Distinguish between the contrasting characteristics of the romanticism
and neoclassicism
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH ROMANTICISM The romantic age is an important era in English literature that believed to
have been started in the late 18th century, historically with the outbreak of
the French Revolution in 1789 in France, however some literary scholars
are of the opinion that it started with the publication of Wordsworth and
Coleridge‟s „Lyrical Ballads‟ in 1798 and ended in 1832 when the famous munotes.in

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2 19th Century English Literature Reform Bill was passed in the British parliament or sometimes 1837 when
the queen Victoria ascended the throne of England. The Romantic
Movement is in fact the revival or renaissan ce of England‟s early literary
traditions of romantic enthusiasm and zeal during Elizabethan period that
shares many characteristics of the 19th century romantic literature.
In England this period is known for its artistic, literary and intellectual
movem ent called romanticism which spread across the European countries
through late 18th century and reached America in 1820s. In England, the
Romantic Movement caused a lot of upheaval in the socio -economic and
political spheres of life and created new aesthet ics of literature. There was
a rapid migration of rural population from countryside to the industrial
cities and as a result major cities of England became over populated
during this period that naturally transformed the very fabric of the English
society.
19th century English romanticism was recognized as the Romantic Revival
Movement as it fall back on its own literary traditions, themes, styles and
nationalistic enthusiasm which was very much alive in its own land during
the period of Elizabethan age.
1.1.1 General Causes of Romanticism :
Generally Romantic age in England is conceived to be the reaction against
preceding age of Neoclassicism with its stringent rules, the age of
Enlightenment in Europe with its aristocratic socio -political norms,
scientific attitude towards nature, over emphasis on decorum, common
sense, rationalism and morality.
The Romantic Movement in England was especially influenced by two
forces called Agricultural revolution and Industrial revolution.
Agricultural revolution tr ansformed English society from agrarian to
industrial; while Industrial revolution replaced the traditional handicraft
industry with the machine operated industry. These movements brought
palpable transformations in the contemporary society that resonated in the
romantic literary output.
Though French Revolution was not the immediate cause of romanticism in
England, it influenced contemporary socio -economic and political thinkers
as well as literary intellectuals in many ways. The romantic poets were
greatly influenced by the radical ideas of the French revolution. Especially
William Wordsworth was very fascinated by the revolution. In his famous
autobiographical poem „The Prelude‟ he thus recounts his experience,
“bliss was it in that dawn to be alive, bu t to be young was very heaven!”.
The English society was divided into three estates i.e. First Estate (Clergy -
priestly class), Second Estate (Nobility - Aristocratic class) and Third
Estate (Commons - Working class). The working class people were terribly
suppressed by the nobility and clergy together which created a major rift
in the society. The intellectuals and literary writers vividly expressed the
angst of these working people through essays, poetry and fiction. munotes.in

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3 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Background Part - I 1.1.2 Industrial revolution :
Industr ial revolution brought a major shift in manufacturing methods in
the late 18th century and early 19th century Great Britain. The hand
production methods were replaced by machine industries owing to the
great deal of development in new technological inventi ons and scientific
discoveries. The greater usage of machines, machine instruments and
machine operated factories, new chemicals, steam engine, and water
energy led to the production in surplus amount. With the invention of
spinning machine textile industr y became one of the major sources of
employment in England. With the increasing economic development
England became the leading power across the world having spread many
of its colonies in America, Africa and Asia including India.
Industrialization resulte d in increased per capita income, over population
in the cities due high living standard and low rate of mortality, amplified
leisurely activities and high rate of literacy. With the advanced facilities of
transportation such as railways and steam boats th e long distance mobility
of the large number of people and goods became possible. However, on
the other hand urbanization and industrialization aggravated environment
related issues like pollution and social issues like poverty, child labor and
insanitatio n.
1.1.3 Agricultural Revolution :
Agricultural revolution in Britain was resulted due to new developments in
farming technology, improved road facilities and transportation,
implementation of modern land laws, increase in farm size, cultivating
select ive breeding and crop rotation. Increasing agricultural produce and
food supply led to the rapid growth of population in England and wales. It
is believed that agricultural revolution caused the industrial revolution as
larger number of farming labor migra ted to urban cities which provided
work force to the industries.
1.1.4 American Revolution :
The period between 1765 and 1791 is known for the American Revolution
that created United States of America and the separate constitution to
govern its states. B efore the revolution it was recognized as British colony
which would levy heavy taxes on the goods and services even though
America had no direct representatives in the British parliament. The
Americans formed the Continental Army under the leadership of G eorge
Washington and defeated the British army in the war and achieved
independence from Great Britain in 1776. It was the earliest revolution in
the Atlantic world which inspired many colonial countries across the globe
for their independence. “The Americ an revolution impacted Great Britain
to a large extends. The American Declaration of Independence influenced
the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789”.
(Wikipedia) Thus American Revolution heralded the new era of liberal
democ racy, republicanism and ended several unequal laws like slavery.
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4 19th Century English Literature 1.1.5 French Revolution :
The primary causes of French Revolution included the failure of French
Monarchy in handling contemporary socio -political and economic issues
such as social ineq uality, economic stagnation, unemployment, poverty,
over population, inflation, over taxation, increasing exploitation of the
farmers and poor people, resistance to reformations etc. The French
Revolution started with the meeting of the Estates General of the French
kingdom which represented the clergy, the nobility and the commoners
later converted to National Assembly and the subsequent uproar that
resulted in the storming of the Bastille prison in 1789 and ended when the
French Consulate was established in 1799. The underlying principles of
the French Revolution i.e. liberty, equality and fraternity were so inspiring
that later they influenced many liberal democratic movements across the
world. Moreover, it influenced many intellectuals and literary write rs of
the contemporary world so much so that the romantic English poets like
William Wordsworth actively participated in the movement in its early
phase. French Revolution established the new social order, repealed many
unjust laws, abolished feudalism, im posed control of the state over the
Catholic Church of France and extended the right to vote. Thus, French
Revolution and its aftereffects reverberated worldwide in every walk of
human life.
1.1.6 Influence of Rousseau and French Revolution :
The influen ce of political theorists of the Enlightenment - a philosophical
movement of Europe - such as Jean -Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1778) and
Montesquieu (1753 -1794) was quite evident in the upsurge of French
revolution (1789 -99) which promoted ideas of equality, li berty and
fraternity that later formed the fundamental principles of today‟s
democracy across the world. Rousseau published his famous book on
political theory called „The Social Contract‟ in 1762 which stirred the
contemporary socio -political landscape of the entire Europe. Rousseau
advocated that the people of the state are sovereign power and not the
Monarchy. He further asserted that the people be granted all the political
power and they must be free to exercise their „general will‟ while making
the law s for public wellbeing. The opening line of his book is still relevant
in today‟s context: “ Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains .”
Rousseau‟s ideas on „general will‟ were later incorporated in the U.S.
Constitution and indirectly embodied in th e preamble of the Indian
Constitution as „We the People…‟
Rousseau‟s political theory in „The Social Contract‟ was strongly
criticized by many for its ambiguity and inappropriateness for the bigger
states like America and France, yet it inspired many revol utionary political
parties and democratic ideologies worldwide including contemporary
French revolutionaries under the leadership of Robespierre.
1.1.7 Disillusionment with the Enlightenment Values of Reason :
In the early 19th century England Romantici sm as an artistic and literary
movement achieved impetus with its growing emphasis on imagination munotes.in

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5 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Background Part - I and emotion. It began as a reaction against the disillusionment with the
enlightenment values of reason, common sense and order. As against the
didacticism of the neoclassicism, romantics were greatly fascinated by the
exotic and imaginary subjects, sublime forms of natural phenomena,
medieval supernaturalism and gothic setting etc. The Romantic literature
was marked by the irrational world of the writer and hi s inquisitiveness
towards nature, which was against the tendencies of the enlightenment
values of rationality.
1.1.8 Influence of German Romanticism :
The German romanticism of the late 18th and early 19th century in fact
preceded English Romanticism. I t emerged in German speaking countries
and greatly influenced contemporary art, literature, philosophy and
criticism. The leading figures of the German romanticism were Friedrich
Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder, Novalis, Karl
Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel, Friedrich Holderlin, Schiller, Heine, Kant,
Hegel etc. The influence of German writers was quite discernible on the
writings of Coleridge, Byron and other romantic English writers.
1.2 ROMANTICISM AS A REACTION TO NEO -CLASSICISM 1. The Neoclassicists deeply respected literary traditions and
conventions laid down by the classical Greek and Roman
predecessors and hence they have developed a strong sense of
disrespect towards any revolutionary innovations whereas
Romanticists adhered t o the innovations in terms of themes, subject,
literary genres and style. In „Lyrical Ballads‟, which is considered as
the manifesto of the romanticism, William Wordsworth denounced
the aristocratic subject and poetic diction and favored rustic life and
real language spoken by men and women. In short, romantic poets
rejected the Neo -classical norms of decorum in literature. According
to romantics, poets were prophets and visionaries. They vehemently
believed in supernatural ideas, far -fetched images and
transcendentalism.
2. 18th century Neo -classical writers believed that literature is an art and
that it requires a special innate talent which can be achieved by
persistent study and practice. In order to create a perfect art one must
be deliberately adaptin g to the tested means developed by the classical
writers. The Neoclassical writers were strongly influenced by
Horace‟s work Ars Poetica which they used as an authoritative text
for the creative writing. On the contrary, for romantics poetry is “the
sponta neous overflow of powerful feelings recollected in tranquility”
and therefore they preferred organic laws of nature over neoclassical
rules and decorum.
3. For Neoclassicists great poets like William Shakespeare and Homer
are rare phenomenon of natural g enius which is in fact a grace beyond
the reach of art and such geniuses are born occasionally. They munotes.in

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6 19th Century English Literature respected classical writers and the rules deduced from their works for
they have survived the test of time. It was assumed that writers can
achieve perfect ion through strict adherence to classical rules.
Romantic writers on the other hand believed in nature and its sublime
forms which became the subject of their poetry. They viewed nature
as a major source of creativity and stimulus of human mind.
4. In 18th century the major subject matter for literature was human
being, their concerns, imperfections and mannerism. Literature was
conceived to be the imitation of nature and life and the main goal of
literature was to instruct and provide pleasure to the man kind. The
Neoclassical writers pursued „art for humanity‟s sake. Neoclassical
poetry was about the other people whereas; romantic poetry was more
individualistic and autobiographical in nature. The central character in
romantic literature is often identifi ed with the author who most of the
times is a solitary figure or nonconformist by faith.
5. Neoclassical poetry emphasized on whatever was common, general
and representative in nature. It captured widely shared experiences,
emotions, tastes and attitudes of mankind. They viewed man as a
limited agent therefore, celebrated man‟s imperfections in literature,
preached evading of extremes and promoted middle path. Romantics
however believed in infinite human possibilities and potentials. For
them it was a grea t age of new beginnings, opportunities, dreams and
aspirations so they believed that the supreme art lies in an endeavor
beyond human capacity.
1.3 CONCLUSION Thus, English Romantic movement heralded a new era of literary
sensibility characterized by a sense of wonder, awe and imagination.
Besides being reactionary against the preceding age of reason and
enlightenment, it was influenced by many internal and external socio -
political and artistic movements that left long lasting impact on English
life such as Industrial revolution, American revolution, Agricultural
revolution, French revolution, German romanticism etc. These influencing
factors have been reflected in the contemporary English literature in the
form of poetry, novel and prose.
1.4 QUESTIONS 1. When did the Romantic Movement emerge in English literature?
2. Discuss the general causes of romantic revival movement in English
literature.
3. Assess the impact of various internal and external socio -political and
literary movements on E nglish romanticism
4. Explain English romanticism as a reaction against neoclassicism?
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7 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Background Part - I 1.5 REFERENCES  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism
 https://useum.org/Romanticism/History -of-Romanticism
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution#:~:text=The%20I
ndustrial%20Revolution%20was%20the,sometime%20between%201
820%20and%201840 .
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_revolution


*****


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8 2
THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL (1798 -1832):
BACKGROUND
PART - II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Survey of Literature: Novel, Poetry and Prose (Types, Trends and
Characteristics)
2.1.1 The Romantic Poetry
2.1.2 Salient Features of Romantic Poetry
2.1.3 Major R omantic Poets
2.1.4 The Romantic Prose (Essay and Novel)
2.2 Rise of Women Writers in the Period
2.2.1 The Romantic Women Novelists
2.3 Conclusion
2.4 Questions
2.5 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES After going through this unit the learners will be able to:
1. Identify the writers in proper historical context
2. Understand the historical perspective of the romantic age literature
3. Explain the major historical, socio -political and literary movements
and their impact on the contemporary literature
2.1 SURV EY OF LITERATURE: NOVEL, POETRY AND PROSE (TYPES, TRENDS AND CHARACTERISTICS) The beginning of 19th century romantic literature can be traced back in the
preceding literary traditions of the gothic fiction, novel of sensibility as
well as graveyard poetry of the late 18th century England. The gothic genre
of fiction is often considered to be developed out of Graveyard poetry.
The well -known graveyard poetry of the time comprises Thomas Gray’s
‘Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751), Robert Blair’s poe m ‘The
Grave’ (1743), Edward Young’s long poem ‘The Complaint: or Night -
Thoughts on Life, Death and Immortality’ (1742 -45), Thomas Parnell’s
‘Night-Piece on Death’ etc. The major theme of graveyard poetry is
obviously death and immortality surrounded by th e chilling setting of the
graveyard. Undoubtedly, the graveyard poetry has influenced the 19th
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9 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Background Part - II Another important precursor of the romantic literature is the novel of
sensibility or se ntimental novel which developed in the form of reaction
against rationalism of the Augustan age. Some of the prominent examples
of the novel of sensibility are: Samuel Richardson’s ‘Pamela’ or ‘Virtue
Rewarded’ (1740), Laurence Sterne’s ‘Tristram Shandy’ ( 1759 -67), Oliver
Goldsmith’s ‘The Vicar of Wakefield’ (1766) etc. The credit for creating
the first gothic novel called ‘The Castle of Otranto’ (1764) goes to Horace
Walpole. Other notable gothic novels are Ann Radcliffe’s ‘The Mysteries
of Udolpho’ (1795) , William Beckford’s ‘Vathek’ (1786) and Matthew
Lewis’ ‘The Monk’ (1796).
The above pioneering poets and novelists have given further impetus to
the romantic literature which was primarily dominated by the poetry.
2.1.1 The Romantic Poetry :
Romantic Eng lish poets can be grouped as pre -romantics, first generation
romantics and the second generation romantic poets. William Blake
belonged to the pre -romantic group of poets, William Wordsworth,
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Southey, Dorothy Wordsworth etc.
belonged to the first generation romantics who were also known as Lake
poets as they lived on the borders of the Lake District, while John Keats,
Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord Byron belonged to the second generation
of romantic poets.
2.1.2 Salient Featu res of Romantic Poetry :
The romantic poetry was primarily concerned with the poet’s self -
expression. In the Preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1800),
William Wordsworth argued that poetry is ‘the spontaneous overflow of
powerful feelings’. T hus, his definition of poetry became the fundamental
guiding principle of romanticism. The subjectivity in poetry acquired
preeminence over objectivity. The nature and its sublime forms became
the essential elements of the romantic poetry. The poetry of th is age was
recognized for its strong power and passion. The poet’s heightened
imagination became the key source of creativity and moreover, its literary
manifestations were not considered less than the divinity. Romantic poetry
is also known for its allusi ons to medieval elements of chivalry, adventure
and supernaturalism.
2.1.3 Major Romantic Poets :
1. William Blake (1757 -1827):
William Blake was known as a preromantic poet, painter and printmaker.
Could not achieve popularity while alive but in present time he is
recognized as one of the most influential poets of the romantic literature.
Blake believed that his poetry was prophetic in nature. His ideas were so
unintelligible and quirky that contemporary poets and critics considered
him mad. In his life t ime, he created immortal works of art which were so
varied and symbolically powerful. His poetry is known for their vitality
and imagination in fact, Blake considered imagination as the body of god munotes.in

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10 19th Century English Literature or human existence itself. He was a staunch Christian by f aith but equally
critical about all forms of organized religion and very hostile towards the
Church of England. His works are spiritualistic yet offers social
commentary on the contemporary issues. Like William Wordsworth,
initially he supported the cause and ideals of French revolutionaries but
later in life he rejected most of their ideas and beliefs as the movement
took towards bloodshed and horror.
His notable work ‘Songs of Innocence and of Experience’ is a collection
of poems known for their themes s uch as two contrary states of human
soul, childlike innocence, religiosity and social criticism. These poems
appeared in two parts, the first part appeared in 1789 and the second part
in 1794, later both parts were compiled together along with some new
poems. In his significant work ‘The Marriage of Heaven and Hell’ (1790 -
93) he discovered the opposite characteristics of reason and energy, energy
as angel and reason as devil however he maintained that progression is
impossible without these contraries and t herefore both are necessary for
life.
‘The Four Zoas’ or ‘Vala’ is an unfinished and very complicated work
about Blake’s unique mythology. It was supposedly a set of nine books
called ‘nights’, Blake started composing them in 1797. The main
characters are of course Four Zoas i.e. Urthona, Urizen, Luvah and
Tharmas. Later he lost confidence in this work and was also going through
depression. So disappointed he was with his mythical creation that he
couldn’t continue further and abandoned the project in 1807.
His next long and prophetic work ‘Jerusalem’ (1804 -1820) is now
considered as one of the best known epic poems and most accessible to the
reader. Blake himself considered it was his best work.
William Blake’s poem ‘Milton’ (1804 -10) is yet an important epic poem
which consists of John Milton as his epic hero who returns from heaven.
He accompanies the poet and explores the present living writers and their
ancestors and also corrects his own spiritual mistakes. William Blake
etched and illustrated almost all his poems on copper plates and later he
would color them with the help of his wife Catherine.
2. William Wordsworth (1770 -1850):
William Wordsworth is known as one of the chief proponents of the
Romantic revival movement. In 1798, Wordsworth and Co leridge
published ‘Lyrical Ballads’ which is considered as a milestone in the
history of English literature. In his second edition of the Lyrical Ballads in
1800, Wordsworth proposed the romantic poetics which advocated rustic
life as a subject of poetry a nd the language spoken by common people as
the poetic diction. He is primarily known as a romantic poet who exerted
tremendous influence on his contemporaries and the posterity alike. His
notable works include ‘The Prelude’ (1850), which is an autobiograph ical
long poem about his personal experiences. It was intended to be the
introduction to his unfinished philosophical poem called ‘The Recluse’.
His other significant works are ‘London’ (1802), ‘The World Is Too Much munotes.in

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11 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Background Part - II with Us’, ‘French Revolution’ (1810), a poem from Lyrical ballads ‘Lines
Written a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey’ (1798), ‘Ode: Intimations of
Immortality’ (1804) and many more.
3. S.T. Coleridge (1772 -1834):
Coler idge was regarded as the most philosophical poet among the
romantics and one of the founder members of the Romantic Movement in
English literature. He was a versatile person widely known for his poetry,
criticism, philosophy and theological ideas. Coleridg e’s critical essays and
lectures on William Shakespeare have been so popular untill present time.
Though he didn’t equally contribute in Wordsworth’s ‘Lyrical Ballads’,
his longest major poem titled ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’ was
hugely appreciated by all. His immense influence on his contemporaries
especially William Wordsworth, Robert Southey and other romantics and
later poet -critics including modern literary critic I. A. Richards is quite
evident through their works. Coleridge, during his early l ife, developed
radical political and theological ideas and along with his friend Robert
Southey he planned to establish a Pantisocratic utopian society however
later this plan was abandoned. Coleridge spent most important time of his
writing while in close association with William Wordsworth, together they
published ‘Lyrical Ballads’ in 1798 which supposedly started a new era in
the history of English literature. His major works include ‘ The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner’ the longest major poem written in 179 7–98 and
published in 1798 in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads, ‘ Christabe l’
(1816) in which a central female character of the same name and her
encounter with a stranger called Geraldine, who claims to have been
abducted from her home by a band of rou gh men. It remained unfinished
and unpublished poem, ‘Kubla Khan’ (1816) was composed one night
after he experienced an opium -influenced dream after reading a work
describing Xanadu, the summer palace of the Mongol ruler and Emperor
of China Kublai Khan. I t was believed that these three major poems would
have tremendously influenced the contemporary gothic fiction. His other
notable poems are ‘The Eolian Harp’ (1795), ‘Frost at midnight’ (1798),
‘Dejection: An Ode’ (1802) and the work of literary criticism called
‘Biographia Literaria’ (1817)
4. P.B. Shelley (1792 -1822):
Percy Bysshe Shelley was yet another great poet of the age however; he
belonged to the second generation of the romantics. He was also
considered as one of the greatest lyrical and philosop hical poets of his
time. He was known for his revolutionary social and political ideas.
Though Shelley could not achieve fame while alive, he increasingly
became popular among successive generations after his death. His
noteworthy works include’ Ozymandias ’ (1818) a sonnet which argues
that even the great kings, empires and histories are subjected to decay and
impermanence, ‘Ode to the West Wind’ (1819) explores the traditions of
Pindaric and Horatian odes. In this poem he asserts that the poet is the
main catalyst who can bring socio -political and moral transformations in
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12 19th Century English Literature the world, ‘To a Skylark’ (1820) this poem is about the power of nature
that inspires the mankind. His ‘The Mask o f Anarchy’ (1819) is a strong
political ballad. Shelley’s other notable works include a verse drama titled
‘The Cenci’ (1819), ‘ Hellas’ (1821) a lyrical drama, ‘Adonais’ (1821) a
widely well -known pastoral elegy, and ‘Prometheus Unbound’ (1820) a
lyrical d rama which alludes to the classical Greek mythological character
Prometheus.
5. John Keats (1795 -1821):
Like Shelley and Byron he was also a very great poet of the second
generation of romantics. He lived very short life but was an exceptionally
genius p oet of his time. Even today he continues to inspire varied types of
poets and writers across the world. His poetry especially series of odes are
known for their vivid natural imagery and sensuality that heightens
extreme emotional responses in his readers. Beside poetry his letters are
most popular and widely analyzed by the scholars and readers of English
literature. His notable works include ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ (1819), ‘Ode
to Autumn’ (1820), ‘Sleep and Poetry’ (1816), and the famous sonnet ‘On
First L ooking into Chapman's Homer’ (1816) which celebrates the great
pleasure and wonder while reading George Chapman’s English translation
of Greek poet Homer. John Keats was severely criticized by his
contemporary critics. This genius poet died of tuberculosis at the age of
25. He desired these words to be inscribed on his tombstone: ‘Here lies
One whose Name was writ in Water’.
6. Lord Byron (1788 -1824):
George Gordon Lord Byron was one of the leading poets of the romantic
English literature. Though very inf luential poet and politician he
constantly underwent through series of controversies which made him
leave England in 1816 not to return again. He was also actively involved
as a revolutionary in the Greek war of independence.
His notable work ‘Don Juan’ ( 1819 -24) a satiric poem based on the legend
of Don Juan, which Byron reverses, portraying Juan not as a womanizer
but as someone who is easily seduced by women. The poem is recognized
as a variation of the epic form, Byron himself called it an "Epic satire ”.
The poem runs through 17 cantos. It was strongly criticized for its
"immoral content” yet became immensely popular poem. In this poem he
has showed his hatred towards the contemporary poets like William
Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge.
His ‘Prometheus’ (1816) is about a Titan, culture hero, and trickster figure
who was credited with the creation of humanity from the clay, and the one
who defies the gods by stealing fire and giving it to humanity
as civilization. He was known for his intellect and support to the
humankind. He was also referred to as the author of human arts and
sciences.
His next prominent work ‘Childe Harold's Pilgrimage’ (1812 -1818)
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13 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Background Part - II disillusioned with a life of ple asure and revelry and looks for distraction in
foreign lands. In a wider sense, it is an expression of the melancholy and
disillusionment felt by a generation weary of the wars of the post -
Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras.
In most of the works his protag onist known as ‘Byronic hero’ displays
unique personality traits that often resembles to Byron’s own
characteristics of personality. “ The Byronic hero presents an idealized, but
flawed character whose attributes include: great talent; great passion; a
distaste for society and social institutions; a lack of respect for rank and
privilege (although possessing both); being thwarted in love by social
constraint or death; rebellion; exile; an unsavory secret past; arrogance;
overconfidence or lack of foresight; and, ultimately, a self -destructive
manner”. (Wikipedia)
2.1.4 The Romantic Prose (Essay and Novel) :
The essay was one of the popular forms of English literature during the
romantic age. The main objective of which was to spread social awareness
and enter tainment. The prominent essayists of the time were Charles
Lamb, Thomas De Quincey and William Hazlitt; their writing was
imaginative and personal in nature yet very influential and varied in
subject and themes. The most romantic among them was Charles Lam b
(1775 -1834) who started publishing his essays in 1820 in the London
Magazine. He collected these essays and published them as ‘The Essays of
Elia’ in 1823. Lamb’s essays are known for his heightened sensibility,
vivid impressions and candid revelation of personal life and experiences.
These essays are filled with candid and quiet revelations of his miseries,
romantic fantasies, childlike innocence, striking blend of facts and fiction,
emotional pathos, and humor all of which reflects on his compassionate
and sensible side of personality. Charles lamb showed a real character of
courage and loyalty when a very tragic incident occurred in his life in
1796, his sister Mary killed their mother in one of the recurrent fits of
madness yet he looked after her for the rest of his life. Lamb’s essays are
also known for his outstanding mastery in portraying very briefly yet
vividly character sketches such as Sister Mary, Brother John,
contemporary poet -friend S. T. Coleridge etc. He was rightly regarded as
‘the prince of English essayists’ and the most romantic writer among his
contemporaries for his beautiful treatment of elements like gothic,
supernatural and fantasy. His other notable prose works include
‘Specimens of English Dramatic Poets Who Lived about the Time of
Shakespear ’ (1808); along with his sister Mary he published retelling of
the stories for children called ‘Tales from Shakespear’ (1807) and ‘The
Adventures of Ulysses’ (1808).
William Hazlitt (1778 -1830) was recognized as an outstanding English
essayis t, literary critic and social thinker. As journalist he started writing
varied essays for the periodical called ‘The Examiner’ in 1813, and later
for ‘Chronicle’ and ‘The Champion’ which include his essays on literary
and political criticism respectively. He was strongly inspired by the
English poet John Milton and utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham and munotes.in

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14 19th Century English Literature wrote extensively about them. He even contributed to the prestigious
periodical of the time called ‘The Edinburgh Review’ which earned him
name and fame . His notable collection of essays called ‘Characters of
Shakespear’s Plays’ was published in 1817. It was received as one of the
best criticism on Shakespeare ever written that reviews all his plays with
greater comprehensiveness. Hazlitt is also known fo r his lecture series
called ‘The English Poets’ delivered in the year 1818. In this successful
series he critically delivered lectures on the poets ranging from Chaucer to
present time. His next prominent book of essays called ‘The Spirit of the
Age’ (1825 ) was in fact about the sketches of 25 eminent men of his time,
the list includes William Wordsworth, S. T. Coleridge, William Godwin
Lord Byron and Jeremy Bentham etc., and other poets, philosophers,
politicians, critics and grammarians. According to Ralp h Wardle, these 25
character sketches combine to “form a vivid panorama of the age”.
(Wikipedia) William Hazlitt was the devoted admirer of Napolean
Buonaparte who was to him a great heroic leader; he wrote a biography of
Napoleon called ‘ The Life of Napol eon Buonaparte’ but could not publish
it in his life time.
Thomas De Quincey (1785 -1859) was yet another important English
essayist, critic and translator of the romantic age. His opium experiences
were first appeared in 1821 in ‘The London Magazine’ whic h became so
popular among the readers that it superseded Charles Lamb’s ‘Essays of
Elia’ which were then being published in the same magazine. These essays
were later collected and published as an autobiographical book called
‘Confessions of an Opium Eater ’ (1821) which includes very candid
revelations about his drug experiences and its aftereffects. His next
important book was called ‘On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth’
(1823) which is considered as the finest piece of literary criticism in
English lit erature.
The novel was not the dominant genre of literature during romantic age
however few notable writers tried their hands in fiction writing such as Sir
Walter Scotts (1771 -1832) who published his famous series of Waverley
novels and historical romance s. His major novels are ‘Waverley’ (1814),
‘Guy Mannering (1815), ‘Rob Roy’ (1817), ‘Ivanhoe’ (1819) etc. His
fiction was known for its medieval European setting, humorous social
observation and sense of romanticism.
Yet another influential English noveli st, journalist and social philosopher
was William Godwin (1756 -1836) who published his radical prose work
‘An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, and Its Influence on General
Virtue and Happiness’ in 1793 which believed to have inspired the
philosophy of communism and anarchy. He also published a collection of
essays called ‘The Enquirer’ in 1797 and the significant novel titled ‘The
Adventures of Caleb Williams in 1794.
2.2 RISE OF WOMEN WRITERS IN THE PERIOD The late 18th century and early 19th centu ry English literature witnessed a
modest but steady rise of women writers in the male dominated munotes.in

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15 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Background Part - II romanticism which Anne K. Mellor termed as “masculine romanticism”
that comprises canonical writers like William Wordsworth, S. T.
Coleridge, Lord Byron, P. B. Shelley and John Keats. Mellor further
argues that “feminine romanticism” (Mellor 3) emerged to rediscover the
erased and neglected voices of the women writers within this movement.
The French revolution helped reorganize the socio -economic and political
structure of the European society and England was not untouched by that
turmoil. Under these circumstances Mary Wollstonecraft (1759 -1797)
carved her path and challenged the contemporary male dominated norms
of gender inequality prevalent in English society by publishing her radical
political and educational tract titled ‘A Vindication of the Rights of
Woman’ (1792) which strongly argues that women are not naturally
inferior to men but they appear so only because of lack of education. She
vehemently suggeste d that both men and women should be treated as
rational beings and imagined a social order based on reason. Her writing
was very revolutionary for the time and believed to have been inspired
many contemporary and subsequent women writers. She is rightly ca lled
as the earliest feminist English writer, her life and works have been so
inspiring for the women writers across the world till date.
2.2.1 The Romantic Women Novelists :
Ideologically more radical novelist Mary Wollstonecraft, pioneer of
feminis m, published her novel ‘Maria’ or ‘The Wrongs of Woman’ in
1798, one of the pioneers of gothic and terror novel in English Ann
Radcliff (1764 -1823) published her outstanding novel called ‘The
Mysteries of Udolpho’ in 1794, P. B. Shelley’s wife and Mary
Wollstonecraft’s daughter Mary Shelley (1797 -1851) published her
remarkable gothic novel that is also recognized as the first science fiction
called ‘Frankenstein’ or ‘The Modern Prometheus’ in 1818, and most
significantly the novels of Jane Austen (1775 -1817 ) such as ‘Sense and
Sensibility’ (1811), ‘Pride and Prejudice’ (1813), ‘Mansfield Park’ (1814),
‘Emma’ (1816), posthumously published ‘Northanger Abbey’ (1818) and
‘Persuasion’ (1818) were published during the peak of romanticism. The
novels of Jane Auste n are known for their conservatism and strict
observation of Augustan principles of objectivity, rationality, common
sense, mannerism as against the new romantic values of imagination,
subjectivity and self -expression.
2.3 CONCLUSION Thus, Romantic age i s considered as one of the most influential and
flourishing periods in the history of English literature. It was emerged as a
reaction to the rigid notions of neoclassicism and Augustan age. Liberal
Poetry was of course the dominant form of literary expres sion during this
time however the prose (novel and essay) didn’t remain far behind in
guiding the contemporary English society. English romanticism
immensely contributed in generating liberal ideas of democracy and
gender equality.
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16 19th Century English Literature 2.4 QUESTIONS 1. What are the salient features of romantic English poetry?
2. Who are called the precursors of romantic age literature?
3. Comment on the contribution of major romantic poets to the 19th
century English literature.
4. Write an essay on main essayists of the romantic age.
5. Assess the contribution major women novelists to the romantic age
English literature.
2.5 REFERENCES  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Byron
 Mellor, Anne. Romanticism and Gend er. Routledge: London, 1993
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wordsworth
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Bysshe_Shelley
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Keats


*****
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17 3
THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL (1798 -1832) :
CONCEPTS
PART - I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Romanticism: Features
3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Features of Romanticism
3.1.3 Renascence of Wonder
3.1.4 Imagination -The Mainspring of The Romantic Revival
3.1.5 Return to Nature
3.1.6 Revolt Against The Neo -Classical/Augustan School Of Poetry
3.1.7 Passion for Medievalism And The Remote In Time And Place
3.1.8 Heterogenous Group of Tendencies
3.1.9 An Exuberant Intellectual Curiosity
3.1.10 Abundant Literary Output
3.2 Romantic Imagination
3.3 German Transcendentalism
3.4 Conclusion
3.5 Questions
3.6 Bibliography
3.0 OBJECTIVES This unit will make the students aware of:
1. The historical and socio -political background of the Romantic Period
of British Literature.
2. Features of the age.
3. Literary tendencies, literary contributions to the different of genres
such as poetry, prose and drama.
4. The important writers and their major works.
With this knowledge the students will be able to locate the particular
works in the tradition of literature, and again they will study the prescribed
texts in the historical background.
Part – I: munotes.in

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18 19th Century English Literature 3.1 ROMANTICISM: FEATURES 3.1.1 Introduction :
Romanticism has been defined as the expression, in terms of art, of
sharpened sensibilities and h eightened imaginative feeling. While
Classicism hails order, clarity and tranquillity, romanticism involves the
addition of strangeness to beauty. The Neo -classical age engendered satire
and invective while the Romantic age witnessed a plethora of lyrics, odes,
ballads and essentially nature poetry. The Neo -classical age critiqued the
absence of values and the snobbishness of the aristocrats while the
Romantic age depicted changing attitudes towards standards of beauty and
ideals and a radical change in mod es of expression.
The latter part of the eighteenth century marked a significant shift in the
literary taste and attitudes towards life. This shift generated a movement
called Romanticism. For reasons of chronological accuracy, one may say
that the movem ent encompasses the period beginning from 1798 (the year
in which William Wordsworth published The Lyrical Ballads in
collaboration with Samuel Taylor Coleridge) to 1837 (the year in which
Queen Victoria ascended the British throne). The Romantic movement
may thus be seen as a deliberate and sweeping revolt against the literary
principles of the Augustan Age or the Age of Reason in its desire for
imaginative freedom, passion for nature and its yearning for the past. The
publication of the Lyrical Ballads i n 1798 by Wordsworth and Coleridge
was a landmark event that brought out the principles on which romantic
poetry rested. The Romantic Revival Movement that started during the
latter half of King George III’s reign and ended five years before the
accession of Queen Victoria to the British throne saw England undergo an
intellectual upheaval because of the French Revolution and the Industrial
Revolution. Both these influences caused not just the social structure of
England to change, but also changed its physi cal appearance. The
Romantic Movement was also impacted by the development of new ideas
in psychology and metaphysics.
Let us understand the major characteristic features of the age.
3.1.2 Features of Romanticism :
The following are the characteristic featu res of the Romantic Revival
Movement:
1. Renascence of Wonder
2. Imagination as the mainspring of the Romantic Movement
3. Return to Nature
4. Revolt against neo -classical/Augustan school of poetry
5. Passion for medievalism and the remote in time and place
6. Heterogenous group of tendencies munotes.in

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19 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832) Concepts Part - I 7. Exuberant intellectual curiosity
8. Abundant literary output
3.1.3 Renascence o f Wonder :
The Romantic Revival Movement was marked by a renascence of wonder.
The wonder implies the perception of objects in th e magic garb of the
creative impulse, that is, the imagination. It celebrated the excitement of
discovery by individuals of a heightened sensibility and plumbed the
possibilities of the imaginative faculty which goes beyond the limitations
of consciousness . The phrase ‘Renascence of Wonder’ thus implies a
childlike wonder which had been repressed by reason and common sense
during the eighteenth century but was present in the Elizabethan age, that
is the sixteenth century. The period is called the Romantic R evival
because it witnessed a revival of the impetuous passion and spontaneity
especially evidenced in the poetry of the age. Romanticism was an active
re-awakening of a creative impulse, of intense emotion coupled with an
unprecedented intensity that disp layed itself in the imagery used by the
poets such as Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley and Keats.
The Renascence of Wonder was inspired by two forces:
1. The literary and artistic discovery of the Middle Ages: its faith, its
picturesqueness and its simplicity
2. The revival of interest in the supernatural.
Many artists found in medievalism a richer inspiration for their literary
output. They turned therefore to the folklore and legends of the Middle
Ages. As a result, an element of mysticism was introduced in the r omantic
spirit. One can see this fascination for the Medieval times in poems such
as Keats’ ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merci’, for instance, where he celebrates
medievalism with its daring love, chivalry, romance, adventure,
superstitions, mystery, pomp and pagea ntry.
3.1.4 Imagination -The Mainspring o f The Romantic Revival :
The chief characteristic that differentiates the English Romantic Revival
poets of the early nineteenth century from the neo -classical poets of the
eighteenth century is the importance which t he Romantics attached to the
Imagination and the special view that they held of it. For Augustan poets
such as Dryden and Pope, imagination had little importance. For them, the
poet was more an interpreter than a creator. They were not interested in
the my steries of life. However, for the Romantics, imagination was
fundamental because they believed that without imagination, poetry is
impossible.
3.1.5 Return t o Nature :
An ardent passion for nature is another characteristic of Romanticism.
This love for natu re was stimulated by Rousseau’s clarion call to “return
to nature” wherein he expected man to return not only to the sights and munotes.in

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20 19th Century English Literature sounds of external nature but also to the elemental simplicities of life
found among the people who live in hills and places cut off from the
currents of sophisticated civilized life. The poets of the Romantic Revival
took up Rousseau’s call to return to nature as a challenge to the urbane and
artificial traditions of the Augustan school of poetry in the eighteenth
century. The neo -classical poetry of the eighteenth century was a poetry of
city life and of nature ‘methodised’. Nature in its wildest aspects shocked
the refined taste of the eighteenth century because Neo -classical poetry
had dealt only with the acquired manners of the elegant and fashionable
townsfolk who cared solely about the etiquette and decorum of social
conventions. Rousseau’s call to return to nature embodied the revolt
against the attitudes of the eighteenth -century poets towards nature. Apart
from marking a re turn to the elemental simplicities of life, it also marked a
return to childhood because the primary instincts and impulses in the child
are untainted by the sophistications of civilization. The child represents
the quintessence of nature. This is beautifu lly brought out in some poems
such as Wordsworth’s ‘Ode: Intimations to Immortality from
Recollections of Early Childhood’. The attraction for the remote and the
return to medieval life is also a variant of this desire to return to nature.
During the Middl e Ages, life was free from the complexities and
artificialities of the modern civilized life.
3.1.6 Revolt against The Neo -Classical /Augustan School o f Poetry :
Victor Hugo termed Romanticism as “liberalism in literature” thereby
highlighting its impatienc e with formulae and its generosity and tolerance
in every other respect. Romanticism, as an artistic movement, insists upon
spontaneity and the principle that every person has a right to express
thoughts in their own unique way.
The Romantic Revival Movem ent of the early nineteenth century
registered a revolt against the neo -classical tradition established by
Dryden and Waller in the seventeenth century and perfected by Alexander
Pope in the eighteenth century. It therefore liberated the unconscious life
from the tyranny imposed by Reason and Decorum. The watchword for
the eighteenth century was Reason and not Fancy. It only wished to
understand and not imagine. If there was any emotion that seemed
suspicious to it, as bordering on insanity, it was inspirat ion. The literature
of the eighteenth century therefore came across as chillingly mannered and
artificially attired with the frost of etiquette and decorum. As Alexander
Pope worded it in his Essay on Criticism:
Know then thyself, presume not God to scan
The proper study of mankind is Man.
The Romantics, however, believed in inspiration, in a divine drunkenness.
They revolted against the dominance of Reason and responded to the
phenomenal world with a heightened sensibility and extraordinary
spontaneity. Th is resulted in making them escapists which in turn, took
different forms with different writers. Wordsworth turned to nature and to
the common man, Coleridge sought it in the supernatural and the Middle munotes.in

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21 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832) Concepts Part - I Ages, Shelley found it in the form of dreams and Keat s escaped into the
world of beauty, art and romance which he found abundantly in the
Middle Ages. In Byron, escapism took the form of an escape into his own
soul.
The Romantic Revival Movement was thus a revolt against authority and
custom. Individualism t herefore became the keynote of nineteenth century
romanticism .
3.1.7 Passion for Medievalism a nd The Remote in Time and Place :
Another characteristic feature of Romanticism was the attraction for the
remote in time and place. This found expression not just in poetry but also
in the flowering of the Romantic Gothic Novel. The German poet and
critic Heine defines Romanticism as the reawakening of the Middle Ages.
H.A. Beers also considers romanticisms to be much concerned with the
revival of medievalism. The art and culture of the Middle Ages as well as
their primitive morality fascinated some of the Romantics, notably Sir
Walter Scott, Coleridge and John Keats. The Middle Ages offered them a
spiritual home, remote and mysterious. They were attracted to the wo rld of
chivalry and pageantry presented by the Middle Ages. Not all Romantic
poets were attracted to the Middle Ages, however. Wordsworth, Shelley
and Byron found more inspiration in the east rather than the Middle Ages.
It is the yearning for the past, fo r the remote in time and place rather than
just the Middle Ages that characterizes English Romanticism.
3.1.8 Heterogenous Group of Tendencies :
The first generation of Romantic poets such as Wordsworth, Coleridge
and Southey were also called Lake Poets and the second generation of
Romantic poets were younger poets such as Byron, Shelley and Keats.
Both generations of poets were inspired by the French Revolution and
affected by the industrial revolution as well. They made a conscious effort
to revolt against traditions that had dominated the poetry of the eighteenth
century. However, each poet had his own way of manifesting these
influences in their poetry. Wordsworth philosophized about Nature,
Coleridge used supernatural elements, Shelley used a mystical ap proach
and Keats used a sensuous approach towards Nature. They autonomously
chose their subject matter and gave it a treatment that they liked.
3.1.9 An Exuberant Intellectual Curiosity :
With the importance given to the imaginative faculty came a sense of awe,
wonder and an exuberant intellectual curiosity that manifested itself in the
poetry and the prose of the Romantic period. Wordsworth’s poetic theory,
Shelley’s transcendentalism, Coleridge’s critical poetic thought embodied
in the Biographia Literari a all reveal the intellectual side of the Romantic
movement. The period witnessed a burgeoning of literary criticism and
scholars such as Hazlitt, Lamb, Coleridge wrote on Shakespeare’s works.
The speculative and inquisitive nature of the prose of the peri od also
manifested itself in the periodicals that were published during this time.
The Morning Chronicle, The Morning Post, The Times Edinburgh munotes.in

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22 19th Century English Literature Review, The Quarterly Review, Blackwood’s Magazine, The London
Magazine and The Westminster Review are notable e xamples. Romantic
criticism became both intellectual and imaginative. To put it in other
words, it was intellectual in its form and imaginative in its vision.
3.1.10 Abundant Literary Output :
Another notable feature of the Romantic Movement is the abundant
literary output that characterized the period. The freshness of the French
Revolution, its new ideas as well as the accompanying social unrest and
economic changes due to industrialization inspired poets and prose writers
alike. The English novel as well as the Personal Essay registered a great
advancement along with the poetry of the period that experimented with
several forms such as songs, odes, ballads and lyrics making it at once
musical, sensuous and impassioned.
Part - II:
3.2 ROMANTIC IMAGINATION 3.2.1 The Romantic Imagination :
The romantic writers were conscious of a wonderful capacity to create
imaginary worlds and they found that the power of poetry was strongest
when imagination worked without any checks. It helped them realized the
possibiliti es of the human self optimally and they expressed themselves
with an abandon and freedom that was inspirational.
Let us understand the two considerations that strengthened this
emphasis on the imagination:
i. Religious considerations:
The eighteenth centu ry with its emphasis on scientific reasoning
concluded that God existed in the universe. But to the Romantics of the
early nineteenth century, religion was a matter of feeling rather than of
reason, of experience rather than of argument.
ii. Metaphysical c onsiderations:
The eighteenth century because of its emphasis on reason and common
sense did not believe in matters which went beyond the physical reality.
They were realists and therefore could not appreciate the spiritual reality
of existence. However, the Romantics were interested in looking through
the film of familiarity and believed in the mystery of even familiar objects.
For the poets of the eighteenth century therefore poetry was merely a
matter of wit and expression, and language was only a dress for thoughts.
But to the romantics, poetry was a product of imagination, which they
realized, was the source of spiritual energy. Imagination for William
Blake, one of the most famous pre -romantic poets, was nothing less than
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23 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832) Concepts Part - I The Romantics were therefore concerned with the things of the spirit. All
romantic poets, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley and Keats, maintained
that the creative imagination was closely connected with a peculiar insight
into an unseen order behind visible things. Each one of the Romantic poets
used their imagination differently and uniquely even as they returned to
nature. Compton -Rickett observes, “Wordsworth spiritualises, and Shelley
intellectualises Nature, Keats is content to express Nature th rough the
senses”.
Thus, we can see that the Romantic Revival Movement was a great
attempt at discovering the world of spirit through the efforts of an
individual’s imagination. Through imagination, it aimed at discovering a
transcendental order which exp lained the world of appearances.
Part - III:
3.3 GERMAN TRANSCENDENTALISM German Romanticism laid great stress on supernaturalism and mythology.
Pure fantasy swept its literature and it synchronized with the awakening of
the German national spirit. Outstan ding German romantics such as
Goethe, the scholarly Schlegel brothers, Novalis the Mystic and Brentano
the romancer were huge influencers. William Taylor, through translations
of German texts and literary criticism became a vital connecting link
between Ge rman Romanticism and English Romanticism. Germany had
made great progress in poetry as well as drama under Goethe and Schiller.
In philosophy, the transcendentalism of Kant and Schelling made them
reject the materialistic interpretation of the universe and embrace Reality
as a spiritual essence that transcended sensual experience. The study of
German literature and philosophy came to be favoured by the English
Romantics because they had been disillusioned by the French Revolution
which around 1793, under re volutionaries such as Robespierre, entered its
second phase - the Reign of Terror. The German transcendentals caught
the fancy of Coleridge and also De Quincey. Goethe’s works that were
translated by Taylor inspired Sir Walter Scott and Byron. In fact, Byr on’s
long poem ‘Don Juan’ was greatly influenced by Goethe’s ‘Sorrows of
Werther’. Schiller’s plays also influenced Coleridge. Gradually the
German Transcendentalists’ influence on English life and literature
increased until by the middle of the nineteenth century, German, became,
next to English, recognized as a dominating language.
3.4 CONCLUSION In this unit we have studied the importance of the Romantic Movement
which exercised a great impact on the development of English literature.
We have also unders tood the social, political, and cultural milieu of the
age as well as the features of Romanticism. Further, we have looked at the
Romantic Imagination as a cornerstone of the literature of the period and
you have also been introduced to some of the major p oets and prose
writers of the age. The unit has also introduced you to influences such as
the French Revolution, the Industrial Revolution and German munotes.in

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24 19th Century English Literature Transcendentalism, all of which went on to shape the literature of the
Romantic Revival.
3.5 QUESTIONS 1. What is Romanticism?
2. What are the characteristic features of English Romanticism?
3. What were the major influences on the Romantic Revival?
4. What do you understand by the Romantic Imagination?
5. Write short notes on:
a. German transcendentali sm
b. The Romantic Imagination
c. Romantic Poets
d. The Return to Nature
e. Major influences on the Romantic Movement
3.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Daiches, David Ed. A Critical History of English Literature, Vol. IV.
The Romantics to the Present Day. Secker &Warbu rg, 1975.
2. Ford, Boris Ed. A Pelican Guide to English Literature From Blake To
Byron. Vol.5. Penguin, 1982. From Dickens to Hardy, Vol.6.
Penguin, 1982.
3. Franklin, Caroline. The Female Romantics Nineteenth Century
Women Novelists and Byronism. Routledge, 201 2.
4. Hayward, John. English Verse. London, 1985.
5. Luebering, J. E. Ed. English Literature From the 19th Century
Through Today, Britannia Educational Pub, 2011.
6. Magnus, Laurie. English Literature in the Nineteenth Century an
Essay in Criticism BiblioBazaar, 20 09.
7. Palgrave, Francis Turner. The Golden Treasury. Fifth Edition,
London, 1965.
8. Willey, Basil. Coleridge to Matthew Arnold. Cambridge, 1980.
*****
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25 4
THE ROMANTIC REVIVAL (1798 -1832):
CONCEPTS
PART - II
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 The Gothic Revival
4.2 Medievalism
4.3 Pantheism
4.4 Conclusion
4.5 Questions
4.6 Bibliography
4.0 OBJECTIVES This unit will make the students aware of:
1. The historical and socio -political background of the Romantic Period
of British Literature.
2. Features of the age.
3. Literary tendencies, literary contributions to the different of genres
such as poetry, prose and drama.
4. The important writers and their major wor ks.
With this knowledge the students will be able to locate the particular
works in the tradition of literature, and again they will study the prescribed
texts in the historical background.
4.1 THE GOTHIC REVIVAL Introduction:
The Gothic Revival in Briti sh Literature is basically one that comes from
the field of architecture. Gothic architecture now denotes the medieval
form of architecture, characterized by the use of the high pointed arch and
vault, flying buttresses, and intricate recesses, which sprea d through
western Europe between the twelfth and sixteenth centuries (Abrams and
Hartpham 152).
Some stock devices, also called by critics such as Robert Hume as "Gothic
trappings" characterized the Romantic Gothic novel such as “haunted
castles, supernatu ral occurrences (sometimes with natural explanations),
secret panels and stairways, time -yellowed manuscripts, and poorly munotes.in

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26 19th Century English Literature lighted midnight scenes” (Hume 282). Some of the typical early novels in
this genre dealt with aberrant psychological states and somet imes revolved
around the appearances and disappearances of characters. Often these
works were known for the horror or terror that they generated among the
readers as well as for the depictions of cruelty, melodrama, and violence.
Some of the early nineteen th century exponents of this form include Percy
Bysshe Shelley, who is known for his Gothic novel Zastrozzi (1810)
which was about an outlaw obsessed with revenge against his father and
half-brother. His second Gothic novel in 1811 was called St. Irvyne or The
Rosicrucian . The inspiration from the Gothic provided the archetype of
the Byronic hero . Byron features, under the codename of Lord Ruthven , in
Lady Caroline's own Gothic novel, Glenarvon (1816).
4.1.1 Etymological Origin, Pl ot and Setting :
The word “Gothic” originally referred to the Goths, who were an early
Germanic tribe. Later the word came to signify “Germanic” and then
“medieval” (Abrams and Ha rtpham 152).
The Gothic Romance, according to Abrams and Harpham, is a type
of:
“…prose fiction which was inaugurated by Horace Walpole’s The Castle
of Otranto: A Gothic Story (1764) -The subtitle denotes its setting in the
Middle Ages – and flourished through the early nineteenth century. Some
writers followed Walpole’s example by setting their stories in the
medieval period; others set them in a Catholic country, especially Italy or
Spain. The locale was often a gloomy castle furnished with dungeons,
subterranean passages, and sliding panels; the typical story focused on the
sufferings imposed on an innocent heroine by a cruel and lustful villain,
and made bountiful use of ghosts, mysterious disappearances, and other
sensational and supernatural occurre nces…The principal aim of such
novels was to evoke chilling terror by exploiting mystery and a variety of
horrors. Many of them are now read mainly as period pieces, but the best
opened up to fiction the realm of the irrational and of the perverse
impulses and nightmarish terrors that lie beneath the orderly surface of the
civilized mind. Examples of Gothic novels are William Beckford’s Vathek
(1786) – the setting of which is both medieval and Oriental and the subject
both erotic and sadistic; Ann Radcliffe ’s The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794)
and other highly successful romances; and Matthew Gregory Lewis’ The
Monk (1796), which exploited, with considerable literary skill, the shock
effects of a narrative involving rape, incest, murder, and diabolism…The
term “Gothic” has also been extended to a type of fiction which lacks the
exotic setting of the earlier romances but develops a brooding atmosphere
of gloom and terror, represents events that are uncanny or macabre or
melodramatically violent, and often deals w ith aberrant psychological
states. In this extended sense, the term “Gothic” has been applied to
William Godwin’s Caleb Williams (1794), Mary Shelley’s remarkable and
influential Frankenstein, and the novels and tales of terror by the German
E.T.A. Hoffman n.” (Abrams and Hartpham 152) munotes.in

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27 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Concepts Part - II According to Hume, by bringing these elements together, Horace
Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto (1764) became the first Gothic novel and
led to three distinct strains of Gothic fiction. The Gothic -Historical School
consisted of the works of Walpole’s successors, viz. Clara Reeve’s The
Old English Baron (1777), Sophia Lee’s The Recess (1785) and Charlotte
Smith’s The Old Manor House (1793). The School of Terror, the second
category is represented by Ann Radcliffe’s The Mysteries of Udolpho
(1794) and it concentrated on supernatural phenomena. The third category
was the School of Horror, which began with Matthew Gregory Lewis’ The
Monk (1796). This novel was influenced by both German and French
literature and was inspired by the wo rks of Friedrich Schiller and Marquis
de Sade. However, these categories often overlap. One of the last Gothic
novels, Charles Maturin’s Melmoth the Wanderer (1820) combines terror
and horror. Several works had elements of the Gothic but could not be
class ified as such. For instance, William Beckford’s Vathek (1786)
combined satire with sensation, and the year 1818 saw the publication of
both Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, the best -known Gothic novel and Jane
Austen’s Northanger Abbey, a parody that brought t he curtain down on
Romantic Gothic fiction.
4.1.2 The Evolution of The Romantic Gothic Novel a nd The Influence
of The Gothic Revival o n Romantic Poetry :
As a historical form the Gothic novel flourished between 1764 and 1820.
Walpole's The Castle of Otranto and Maturin's Melmoth the Wanderer are
its limits of demarcation (Hume 282).
Mrs. Radcliffe's The Mysteries of Udolpho, Clara Reeve's The Old
English Baron and Lewis’s The Monk are some other notable examples.
With Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein the R omantic Gothic novel came
into its own as a popular form. Melmoth the Wanderer (1820) by Charles
Maturin , which combines themes of anti -Catholicism with an
outcast Byronic hero , is a late example of this type of fiction.
The Romantic Gothic novel was born in an atmosphere of increased
scientific inquiry, which had led to the weakened hold of religion on the
masses. It represented both an assault on the repressed aesthetics of the
Augustan period and an attempt at coming to terms with the excesses of
Romanticis m. As Gilbert Phelps puts it, the stature of the Gothic novelists
as creative writers “is to be measured by the degree to which they refused
to surrender to these forces”.
In poetry, one sees evidence of the Romantic Gothic influence in poems
such as Coler idge’s ‘Rime of the Ancient Mariner’, a ballad and in his
‘Christabel’ as well as in John Keats’ ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merci’ and
‘Isabella or the Pot of Basil.’
4.2 MEDIEVALISM Medievalism is essentially characterized by attraction for the remote in
time a nd place. There are certain psychological reasons for this fascination munotes.in

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28 19th Century English Literature for the remote. The Romantic imagination was taken by the picturesque
and the marvellous and as it was basically a revolt against customs and
traditions held supreme by the neo -classica l age, the Middle Ages began to
be regarded with fresh sympathy. This is evidenced in the poetry of Keats
and Coleridge. Ivanhoe , a historical novel by Sir Walter Scott , first
published in 1820 in three volumes and subtitled A Romance, is credited
with increasing interest in romance and medievalism . Scott's
overwhelming influence over the Gothic rev ival is based primarily on the
publication of this novel. Ivanhoe was set in 12th century England.
The main goal of the literature of the age was to entertain and excite its
readers with a tale of heroism set in the high Middle Ages, evoking the
atmosphere of a vanished era. The etymological origins of the word
medievalism can be traced to Latin. The words medium aevum mean the
middle of the ages.
As we have already seen in the earlier unit, the attraction for the remote in
time and place was one of the ch aracteristics of the Romantic Movement.
The critic H.A. Beers considers romanticism to be much concerned with
the revival of medievalism. The romantics of the early nineteenth century
turned away from the present and became enamoured with the remote.
They desired an escape from familiar experiences and from reality. Thus,
they took great delight in all that was Medieval. Although the word
medieval has some negative connotations today, during the Romantic
revival it was synonymous with the picturesque and th e marvellous. The
art and culture of the Middle Ages as well as their primitive morality
fascinated the romantics. They regarded the Medieval with fresh eyes and
sympathy. Medievalism provided poets such as Keats and Coleridge with
a spiritual home that wa s at once remote and mysterious. Sir Walter Scott
was also fascinated by the chivalry and pageantry of the Middle Ages and
this is displayed in his famous historical novel, Ivanhoe, set in the England
of the twelfth century. Not all Romantic poets, howeve r, were attracted
towards the Middle Ages. William Wordsworth, P.B. Shelley and Lord
Byron felt no attraction towards medievalism. In fact, Wordsworth found
his spiritual home in Nature, Shelley in his Platonic Idealism and Byron in
the world of his own ma ke believe and also in the east rather than in the
Middle Ages. It is the yearning for the past, for the remote in time and
place rather than only the Middle Ages that characterizes English
Romanticism.
Romanticism was a complex artistic, literary and inte llectual movement
that gained strength during and after two of the most landmark events in
world history i.e. the Industrial and the French Revolutions. While the
Romantic movement did revolt against the political norms of the Age of
the Enlightenment whic h sought rationalize nature, it also embodied
nature most evidently in literature as well as the visual arts and music.
Romanticism sought to go beyond the rational and therefore has been seen
as a revival of the life and thought of the Middle Ages. Romant icism as a
movement took it beyond the classicist models and sought to elevate
medievalism by embracing the exotic, unfamiliar and distant and by
escaping the confines of the urban industrial sprawl that was burdened by munotes.in

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29 The Romantic Revival (1798-1832): Concepts Part - II the exponential rise in population. The term “romanticism” was itself
derived from the medieval genre of chivalric romance. The movement
immediately conjures up images such as the knight in shining armour, a
distressed damsel, a dragon or a castle. These images can be seen in the
illustratio ns of the pre -romantic poet William Blake as well as in the work
of Sir Walter Scott. Under the influence of medievalism, the Romantic
age witnessed greater freedom, spontaneity and a richer play of fancy.
4.3 PANTHEISM The tendency towards pantheism beca me explicit among the Romantics in
the nineteenth century and this was evidenced in the works of Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, who was acquainted with German culture. In many
ways, German transcendentalism was the conduit through which
pantheism came to Britain . Coleridge, however, was described as
pantheistic for only a few years, and eventually reverted to Christianity.
Pantheism is derived from the Greek words pan (which means all) and
theos (which means God), thus suggesting that Nature or the Universe is
identified with divinity. To put it simply, pantheism may be understood as
the belief that everything comprises an all -encompassing, immanent God.
William Wordsworth was a major Romantic poet who was looked upon as
a nature -worshipping pantheist, but as the years passed and his fame grew,
he introduced more theistic tones into his work and revised the Prelude in
this spirit too.
The younger generation of Romantics were more openly unorthodox.
Keats expressed his pantheist views in a letter to his brother and sister: it
was a melancholic, dualist kind of pantheism, of which little is openly
visible in his poetry.
Shelley is better known as an atheist than as a pantheist, but in his atheist
tracts he is careful not to exclude the idea of a universal spirit - an idea
that makes his ‘Ode to the West Wind’ one of the most powerful poetic
statements of pantheism.
In the early nineteenth century, the German theologian Julius Wegscheider
defined pantheism as the belief that God and the world established by God
are one and the same. The Romantic poets were strongly influenced by
pantheism as a philosophy, and this is amply demonstrated in their work.
Each one of the romantic poets however, approached nature in their own
unique manner. Wordsworth philosophized nature, Ke ats presented natural
landscapes through the senses, Shelley approached nature mystically while
Coleridge was fascinated by the supernatural aspects of nature.
4.4 CONCLUSION We have looked at the development of the Romantic Gothic Novel as well
as the in fluence of the Gothic Revival on poetry and fiction on nineteenth
century British Literature. This unit has also introduced you to the
influence of Pantheism and the Middle Ages, thus giving you a broad munotes.in

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30 19th Century English Literature overview of all the major influences that shaped the literature of this
period.
4.5 QUESTIONS 1. Write an essay on the influence of the Gothic Revival on the
development of the Romantic Gothic Novel.
2. Trace the development of the Romantic Gothic Novel.
3. Short Notes:
a. Medievalism
b. Pantheism
c. The major proponents of the Romantic Gothic Novel
d. The stock devices used by the Romantic Gothic Novelists
4.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Abrams, M.H. and Hartpham Eds. A Glossary of Literary Terms.
Eleventh Edition. USA, 2014
2. Chandler, Alice. A Dream of Order: The Me dieval Ideal in Nineteenth
Century Literature. London, 1971.
3. Daiches, David Ed. A Critical History of English Literature, Vol. IV.
The Romantics to the Present Day. Secker &Warburg, 1975.
4. Ford, Boris Ed. A Pelican Guide to English Literature From Blake To
Byron. Vol.5. Penguin, 1982. From Dickens to Hardy, Vol.6.
Penguin, 1982.
5. Franklin, Caroline. The Female Romantics Nineteenth Century
Women Novelists and Byronism. Routledge, 2012.
6. Hume, Robert D. “Gothic Versus Romantic: A Revaluation of the
Gothic Novel” . Mar. Vol. 84, No. 2. MLA, 1969.

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munotes.in

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31 MODULE - II
5
SELECTED VERSE FROM THE
ROMANTIC PERIOD
PART - I
Unit Structure
5.0 Objective
5.1 Introduction to the Romantic Age
5.2 William Blake
5.2.1 The Divine Image from Songs of Innocence
5.2.2 The Human Abstract from Songs of Experience
5.3 William Wordsworth
5.3.1 Lines Written in Early Spring
5.3.2 Lucy Gray
5.4 Samuel Taylor Coleridge
5.4.1 Kubla Khan
5.5 Let’s Sum Up
5.6 Questions
5.7 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES In this unit, we have provided a brief summary of the various aspects of
the Romantic Period along with some of the famous romantic poets and
their selected poems. We shall be briefly discussing William Blake and his
two poems in detail that is “The Divine Image” from Songs of Innocence
and “The Human Abstract” from Songs of E xperience, Wiliam
Wordsworth and his poems “Lines Written in Early Spring” and “Lucy
Gray”, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem Kubla Khan.
Therefore, learners are advised to examine the poems carefully in order to
understand the poetic nature of their wo rks, and Romantic elements like
human emotions such as love, life and nature that are discussed in their
poetry.
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ROMANTIC AGE According to many academics, William Wordsworth and Samuel
Coleridge's "Lyrical Ballads" appeared in prin t in 1798, marking the start
of the Romantic era. These two writers' most well -known works, including
Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" and Wordsworth's "Lines
Written a Few Miles from Tintern Abbey," were included in the volume. munotes.in

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32 19th Century English Literature A Vindication of the Rights of Women by Mary Wollstonecraft, William
Blake's "Songs of Innocence," and other works show that a change in
political thought and literary representation has already occurred. Of
course, other literary scholars position the start of the Roma ntic period
fairly early (around 1785). Charles Lamb, Jane Austen, and Sir Walter
Scott are examples of other "first generation" Romantic authors.
The Second Generation :
A consideration of the time is also a little more difficult because a second
generati on of Romantics existed (poets Lord Byron, Percy Shelley, and
John Keats). Of course, the majority of this second generation's geniuses
passed away early and were outlived by the Romantics of the first
generation. Of course, Mary Shelley, who is still well -known for her 1818
novel "Frankenstein," belonged to this so -called "second generation" of
Romantics. While there is some debate over the exact start date, it is
generally accepted that the Romantic period came to an end with Queen
Victoria's crowning in 1837 and the onset of the Victorian Period.
Following the Neoclassical era, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, and
Keats appear. With Pope and Swift, we witnessed incredible wit and satire
from the previous era, but the Romantic Era began with a new lyric in the
air.
We are on the edge of the Industrial Revolution, and writers were
impacted by the French Revolution as these new Romantic poets wrote
their way into literary history. The Wordsworth school of poetry "had its
genesis in the French Revolution... It was a period of promise, a
regeneration of the world —and of letters," according to William Hazlitt,
author of the book "The Spirit of the Age." The Romantics turned to
nature for self -fulfillment rather than adopting politics as writers of earlier
eras may have (and in fact, some Romantic writers did). They were
eschewing the beliefs and ideals of the preceding age and embracing fresh
means of expressing their creativity and emotions. They preferred to
depend on oneself, on the radical notion of individual freedom, as opposed
to concentrating on the "head," the intellectual emphasis of reason. The
Romantics favoured "the splendour of the imperfect" over aiming for
perfection.
5.2 WILLIAM BLAKE William Blake, an English poet, painter, engraver, and visionary, lived
from 1757 to 1827. James Basire mentored him in the art of engraving,
and he later studied at the Royal Academy. In 1784, Blake established a
print shop in London after being married in 1782. With the use of his new
"Illuminated Printing" process, h e created an inventive way for creating
coloured engravings and started creating his own illustrated poetry books,
such as Songs of Innocence (1789), The Marriage of Heaven and Hell
(1790), and Songs of Experience (1794). His most elaborately designed
work is Jerusalem, an epic that discusses humanity's fall and salvation. His
other notable works include "Milton" and "Vala, or The Four Zoas". He munotes.in

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33 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - I was disregarded by the public of his time but is now regarded as one of the
most important and influential Romant ic figures.
Songs of Innocence was published in its entirety for the first time in 1789.
It is a thematic collection of 19 poems that have artwork engraved on
them. The majority of the stories in this collection depict joyful, naive
perception in peaceful settings, but occasionally, as in "The Chimney
Sweeper" and "The Little Black Boy," they subtly highlight the potential
risks associated with this vulnerable and naïve state.
The second section of William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of
Experience, Song s of Experience is a collection of 26 poems. 1794 saw
the publication of the poems. Blake added some of the poems to Songs of
Innocence and regularly switched them between the two works to align his
works according to the themes suitable to the collection of other poems.
Songs of Experience was originally published in 1794, after Songs of
Innocence appeared in print in 1789.
5.2.1 The Divine Image from Songs of Innocence :
The Divine Image's first line lists the virtues of Mercy, Pity, Peace, and
Love. "To Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love/All pray in their distress", these
qualities are capitalised as they are personified. The interaction between
supernatural entities and humanity is portrayed in this personification.
Additionally, these qualities become objects of prayer in times of need and
should therefore be treasured and appreciated. It's important to note how
The Divine Image's style in this and the subsequent stanzas emphasises the
visuals being conveyed rather than the language itself.
The virtues are rel ated to both God and man in the second stanza. The
narrator makes a second connection to the virtues, this time linking them
to God: "For Mercy, Pity, Peace and Love/Is God, our father dear." The
same attributes are then linked to man in the next line: "An d Mercy, Pity,
Peace and Love/Is Man, his child, and care." The repetition of the virtues'
and how they link divine and mankind. The father/child relationship that is
formed after the introduction emphasises the bond between God and man.
Thus, a significa nt point is made for the relationship between divine and
humanity.
The Divine Image's third verse explains each of the qualities and how they
apply to people. The virtues are separated for the first time in this stanza,
as you may have noticed. "Mercy has a human heart," "Pity has a human
face," "Love, the human form divine," and "Peace, the human dress," the
narrator asserts, assigning each virtue to a human form. This transition in
the poem highlights the traits of each virtue and how they relate to man.
Additionally, the word "human" is used frequently, with a focus on its
connection to the virtues and its personification.
The connection between the virtues and humanity is elaborated upon in
the fourth stanza. These attributes are always present in the pr ayers of
"every man, of every clime," according to the narrator. Once again, this munotes.in

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34 19th Century English Literature emphasises the human factor of these qualities and the bond between
humanity and god. Particularly when the narrator states that all prayers are
"to the human form divine," t his is apparent. The virtues mentioned in The
Divine Image's earlier stanzas are all grieved in the quatrain's final line.
The Divine Image's concluding verse highlights the need of cherishing all
kinds of humankind. "All must love the human form/In heathe n, Turk or
Jew," the narrator says. This is due to the fact that all forms of mankind
are connected to divine and so have equal value. Three of these virtues —
Mercy, Love, and Pity —coexist with God, the narrator concluded, writing,
"Where Mercy, Love, and P ity dwell/There God is dwelling also." This
emphasises the notion of the interconnectedness of God and man that was
expressed in the preceding quatrains.
Four traditional Christian virtues —Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love —that
reside in human hearts and link t hem to God are presented by the poet in
the poem. The personification of these virtues as characteristics of God is
followed by an explanation of how they also characterise men.
Furthermore, The Divine Image shares a similar theme with A Cradle
Song, which also examines the link between God and Man, and it also
emphasises the need to honour all variations of the human form. These
themes are also shared with The Little Black Boy.
The relationship between people and God is one of The Divine Image's
central to pics. The narrator connects divine and mankind while praising
them both. The values that are praised by the narrator contain both a
divine and a human side. Seeing as God and Man are interwoven, mankind
likewise transforms into something praiseworthy.
5.2.2 The Human Abstract from Songs of Experience :
The Human Abstract was first printed in Songs of Experience in 1794.
Traditional Christian virtues and human reason are criticised in the poem.
William Blake's metaphysical writing can be seen in works like Th e
Human Abstract. The Human Abstract explores several qualities to depict
the conflict between mankind and God. The Human Abstract from Songs
of Experience, a later poem by William Blake, was written in contrast to
The Divine Image. In reality, The Human A bstract's initial title was The
Human Image. A significant difference between these two titles will be
observed in this section. The Human Abstract's first stanza discusses the
virtues of pity and mercy. The narrator introduces itself by mentioning
Pity. B oth nouns are capitalised in this instance as in the case of Mercy
because they are personified and serve as the focal points of the poem. The
narrator examines the noble concepts of Pity and Mercy and discovers that
they both assume unpleasant things. In particular, Mercy needs
unhappiness and Pity needs poverty. Thus, the two virtues have
unavoidable drawbacks that go hand in hand with their advantages.
The criticism of the first quatrain is expanded upon in the second stanza.
Since fear is the only thing that may bring about peace, the narrator keeps
talking about these false virtues. The Human Abstract's narrator also
emphasises Cruelty, which is capitalised just like in the previous stanza. munotes.in

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35 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - I Because of "selfish loves," cruelty flourishes and finds a meth od to
expand: "Then Cruelty knits a snare,/And spreads his baits with care." It
can be observed how the narrator utilizes hunting metaphors to discuss
cruelty. Thus, the activities connected to the word increase the
personification of the capital letter (" Cruelty").
The Human Abstract's third stanza continues to develop the idea of cruelty
and also makes reference to humility. The first word of the quatrain is
"He," which refers to Cruelty. Once this happens, cruelty "sits down with
holy fears" and "waters the ground with tears." As it performs two actions
that are accompanied by sentiment in this way, Cruelty is still personified.
Then, another illusory virtue appears as Humility stands at Cruelty's feet.
Cruelty leads to humility, as stated in the poem "Th en Humility takes its
root/Under his foot." Yet another virtue that is embodied is humility.
The third and fourth stanzas are similar in that the fourth completes and
introduces the preceding stanza's depiction of a false virtue. We should
take note of how , starting with the second quatrain, the stanzas create a
narrative across the lines while maintaining the same personification
approach and maintaining consistent rhythms because of the stanza's
structure and rhyme. Two insects feed on mystery as humility spreads. It
can be observed how the narrator of The poem presents another false
virtue in the last lines by using natural materials.
More imagery elements of nature are developed in the poem's fifth stanza.
The previous quatrain's reference to mystery say s that it "bears the fruit of
Deceit," which is described as being "Ruddy and sweet to eat." This fruit
consequently develops from the tree that has grown out of the previous
false virtues. This list of false virtues is a subsequent addition that creates
a negative image of nature that ends with the phrase "his nest has made/In
its thickest shade”. We need to consider the fact that "Raven" is
capitalised within a personification device in the fourth verse as
"Caterpillar and Fly."
The development of the fiv e quatrains is completed in the sixth stanza.
The narrator says that the "Gods of the earth and sea" searched through
nature to discover the tree that was being described, but that their efforts in
search were futile because the tree is not present there. We need to take
note here that from the second to the fifth stanza, the list of false virtues
consisted of illustrations of trees. However, this only expands "in the
Human Brain." Therefore, all of these false virtues are only human beliefs
and perceptions that have nothing to do with what nature actually is.
Because of this, every demerit associated with these false virtues is fully
human.
The Human Abstract comprises twenty -four lines overall, six quatrains.
The rhyme has an AABB structure. This straightf orward rhyme pattern
recreates pure sonority, emphasising the words' meanings. In order to
draw the reader's attention to "Mystery," the fourth stanza breaks the
rhyme scheme. Additionally, The Human Abstract's six stanzas are
didactic in tone and convey i ts lesson in a broadly applicable way. The munotes.in

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36 19th Century English Literature poem primarily focuses on addressing the reader in the manner of a lesson,
but from a critical point of view.
The Human Abstract has two basic themes. These are associated with the
opposition of nature, divinity, and mankind. The first is the human
construct of virtue and religion. The opening stanzas offer a critical
perspective on the virtues that are customarily connected with Christianity.
These are eventually thought to be erroneous since they are prejudiced b y
human reasoning and are not fully desirable. Additionally, the final
stanzas introduce the second theme, which is humanity's entrapment. We
understand through this poem how mankind is surrounded by more "false"
virtues like humility and deceit because it is unable to escape these
negative sides of its "virtues".
The poem examines how virtues are closely intertwined with pain.
Without poverty, pity would not exist, mercy would presuppose
unhappiness, and the root of peace would be fear. Cruelty, humility, and
deceit are some other virtues that are born out of sin. The narrator claims
that, in contrast to what occurs in nature, all these negative or erroneous
values develop and spread "in the Human Brain".
5.3 WILLIAM WORDSWORTH William Wordsworth was born in Cockermouth, Cumberland, England, on
April 7, 1770, and passed away at Rydal Mount, Westmorland, on April
23, 1850. Wordsworth, who was orphaned at the age of 13, attended
Cambridge University, but he was completely penniless and rootless until
1795, wh en a bequest made it possible for him to reunite with his sister
Dorothy Wordsworth. He became acquainted with Samuel Taylor
Coleridge, with whom he collaborated on the anthology Lyrical Ballads
(1798), which is frequently cited as the catalyst for the Eng lish Romantic
movement. Among Wordsworth's works are "Tintern Abbey'' and other
verses that have caused controversy due to their usage of commonplace
vernacular. He wrote The Prelude (1850), an enormous autobiographical
poem that would fill him sporadicall y for the following 40 years, in 1798.
Poems, in Two Volumes (1807), his second collection of verses, has many
of the rest of his best poems, including "Ode: Intimations of Immortality."
His poetry had mostly lost its impact by the time he was well admired by
critics and the general public, and his political activism had given way to
conservatism. He was named England's poet laureate in 1843. He is
thought to have played a key role in the founding of English Romanticism.
5.3.1 Lines Written in Early Spring by William Wordsworth :
While out on a stroll close to the village of Alford, Wordsworth composed
"Lines Written in Early Spring." Wordsworth was an avid walker and
frequently penned his poetry while on the go or while he observed natural
scenes. He was a p roponent of the French Revolution and worried about
the state of society and what people were doing to one another. William
Wordsworth's poem "Lines Written in Early Spring" is a stunning example
of a landscape poem that emphasises nature. William Wordswor th, poet of munotes.in

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37 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - I "Lines Written in Early Spring," and his then -friend Samuel Taylor
Coleridge planned to publish a collection of poetry titled "Lyrical Ballads"
in 1798.They reprinted this volume in 1802, but this time it included a
prologue written by William Wordsworth himself in which he made an
effort to justify the motivation behind his poetic creations. What is a poet,
he asked? Moving away from the idealistic concept of the poet as having
some greater purpose in life and some God -ordained ability to write to
teach others, he is a man speaking to men. William Wordsworth's poem
"Lines Written in Early Spring" is a landscape that focuses primarily on
the natural world. The unidentified narrator ponders the social changes
taking place all around him while rela xing under a tree in the wilderness.
While there were other poetry of nature that were popular throughout the
Romantic era, Wordsworth is the one who comes to mind most
immediately. Wordsworth believed that to be close to nature was to be
close to God. Th e line "a thousand mingled notes" in the first quatrain,
which alludes to the natural world's near -pervasive presence and is
comparable to God's omnipotence, refers to the divinity of Nature. The
second quatrain temporarily departs from nature to reflect o n the suffering
that people have inflicted upon one another throughout history. by the
concept of a soul; that Nature's soul is similar to that of humanity; and
that, despite what the rest of the world has forgotten, it is man's natural
state to be close t o Nature. One of Wordsworth's fundamental beliefs was
that man's innate state was to be near to nature. The idea of nature as a
living entity is brought up once more in this quatrain, this time in the verbs
used to describe movement: "trailed" for the peri winkle and "breathes" for
the flowers. Wordsworth makes an effort to convey the concept of a live,
breathing environment that is only a small distance from humans
throughout "Lines Written in Early Spring." The reader is drawn to nature,
which has been dis cussed so much that the speaker -poet is reduced to
almost nothing by the movement, which contrasts sharply with the
immovable poet. He doesn't appear in the poem at all; he has no thoughts,
no personality, and no ideas. His world is absorbed by nature's mo re
powerful realm. “Have I no reason to regret what man has made of man?”
Wordsworth asks at the end of "Lines Written in Early Spring."
The poet -wounded speaker's soul was attempted to be healed by nature
throughout the poem, but near the end, despite na ture's best efforts, the
poet-spirits speaker's are still sad and depressed, undermining the
purported healing power of nature. The book concludes on a depressingly
melancholy note; the natural world, unaffected by human suffering, goes
on with its existen ce, while the human soul, imprisoned in its iron cage of
mortality and reason, is left behind to endure the suffering of the human
world. The poem "Lines Written in Early Spring" is composed of six
quatrains, which are groups of four lines.
The three main themes of Wordsworth's poem "Lines Written in Early
Spring" are tranquilly, spirituality, and nature. The speaker of this poem,
who is almost certainly the poet, keeps track of his surroundings as he
reads. He talks about the effect that seeing photos of nature has on him. In
a "nice mood," he was. However, this positive state of mind prompts him munotes.in

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38 19th Century English Literature to think more deeply about human nature and the state of the human soul
and spirit. He laments what mankind has done to mankind in the presence
of Nature, which i s home to all of us. The speaker is aware that despite the
fact that he lacks the answers to many of his questions, he may still enjoy
the environment around him.
5.3.2 Lucy Gray by William Wordsworth :
Anyone who has studied William Wordsworth's poetry, in cluding "Lucy
Gray," knows that the loss of a child frequently appears in his works.
Wordsworth lost his own son and daughter, and those losses seem to have
haunted him for the rest of his life. Poetry by Wordsworth frequently deals
with death -related issu es. He occasionally finds solace in ideas about
death. Sometimes he feels hopeless. He expresses the paralysing fear of
losing the one he loves in his poetry, "Strange Fits of Passion have I
known." Nearly often in his poetry, the name Lucy designates a pe rson he
loved and lost. Depending on the situation, Lucy may represent a lover or
the innocent, unadulterated love a father has for his daughter. Many
commentators have disagreed about who Lucy is, but the majority have
come to the conclusion that she does not reflect just one individual.
Instead, she is a character made out of every person Wordsworth has ever
loved and lost. Wordsworth lost his own son and daughter, and those
losses seem to have haunted him for the rest of his life.
Nearly often in his poe try, the name Lucy designates a person he loved
and lost. Depending on the situation, Lucy may represent a lover or the
innocent, unadulterated love a father has for his daughter. Many
commentators have disagreed about who Lucy is, but the majority have
come to the conclusion that she does not reflect just one individual. The
first quatrain establishes the scene and foreshadows what will come later
in the poem. The reader is aware of how frequently and before whom
Lucy Gray has been mentioned. The speaker c ontinues by saying that he
witnessed "the lone child" just before "break of day." The reason the
speaker first heard of Lucy Gray is still a mystery at this moment. He also
doesn't explain why seeing her is significant. The first verse just piques
readers' interest in Lucy and establishes her as a key character. Further
piqueing interest in Lucy is the second stanza. She claims to have "no
partner" and "no comrade," the speaker continues. This fits with his
description of her as a "solitary child" in the ve rse before this one. Then he
continues, "She lived on a huge moor." Consider a youthful child living
alone and outside, without any family or friends. One may start to believe
that he is portraying a certain type of feral child, but line three of this
stanza completely refutes that notion. She is "the nicest thing that ever
bloomed by a human door," the speaker claims. The readers can now
appreciate Lucy's sweetness and cuteness. She was born "beside a human
door," according to the final line. Given that s he is a human child, it
appears odd that she did not develop inside of the door. She "dwelt among
the moor," the speaker has already said. The readers are left wondering
about Lucy and her peculiar identity as a result of these two descriptions.
Here, in t he third stanza, the speaker addresses the audience directly and
declares that while they might "spy the fawn at play" and "spot a hare munotes.in

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39 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - I upon the green," "the sweet face of Lucy Gray will never again be seen."
The speaker reveals that Lucy has experienced a setback in this stanza.
According to these quotations, the speaker is now narrating a story. He
may have heard this tale from someone else. He starts speaking in terms of
someone else. This guy allegedly sent the youngster looking for her
mother in the sn ow with a lamp.
Lucy's response, "That, Father! " does not come as a surprise because the
speaker has already called her "the sweetest thing." Will I do gladly:
Additionally, it is made clear that the speaker is Lucy's father by this. At
two in the afternoo n, the father sends his daughter out. He requests that
she bring her mother a lamp. Lucy goes willingly. The narrative is
continued in this stanza from the viewpoint of the first speaker. He claims
that as Lucy left with "the lantern in her hand," the fath er went back to his
job. In the seventh verse, Lucy is described as ambling along lazily and
carelessly while kicking up "powdery snow" and observing it rise "like
smoke." These details about Lucy continue to depict her as a kind and
innocent youngster. Th e reader becomes more concerned about Lucy as he
learns more about her because the speaker had earlier said that she is not
to be seen again. The illustration of a young child walking in the snow
while obeying her father helps readers identify with Lucy. T he speaker
gives away Lucy's fate in the first line of the eighth stanza.
In the next stanza, the speaker refers to dawn once more. This section of
the poem is important. The speaker first mentions seeing Lucy Gray at this
time of day. At this time of day , the parents also come to the conclusion
that Lucy most likely did not survive the winter storm. The parents start to
cry and give up trying to find Lucy at this point in the eleventh quatrain.
They return home and hold onto the faith that their daughter may one day
join them in paradise. "The mother spied the print of Lucy's feet" at that
precise moment. She has been in the storm all night. It's unlikely that she
would have lived. However, spotting her footprint inspires optimism. The
parents started to f ollow her footprints in the eleventh grade. They can see
that she travelled They carry on in her footsteps with hope in their hearts.
The reader is probably now completely sympathetic to the parents.
Readers can either connect to or at least comprehend the sentiments of
frantically looking, mourning and accepting her death, and renewed hope
upon discovering her footsteps. The next stanza demonstrates her
footprints are followed by her parents until they reach a bridge after
crossing a field. Readers can see the parents' emotions as they tracked
their daughter's footprints and had to picture her trekking through the
snowstorm, scared and bewildered. An overwhelming sense of loss is
evoked in the fourteenth stanza. There is optimism that the child will be
found alive at the end of the parents' footsteps as they follow in her
footsteps. Instead, the parents followed the tracks until they reached the
"middle of the plank" on the bridge, when they abruptly stopped. That
Lucy fell off the bridge is the only logical conclusion. The readers are
informed in the fifteenth verse that tiny Lucy's body was never located.
People would still not assert that "she is a living child" if it had been
discovered. Additionally, it sheds more light on the opening stanzas,
where the speaker claims to have seen her and described her as a "solitary munotes.in

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40 19th Century English Literature child." He claims to have seen Lucy Gray's ghost, who he had heard about
frequently.
The speaker reconfirms in the sixteenth stanza that he has seen Lucy Gray
and describes the person she is right now. He claims that when she "sings
a solo melody," "she trips along and never looks behind." This paints a
serene picture of Lucy and suggests that she may have been singing and
skipping before the storm swept her away. It seems that rather than bei ng
afraid by the storm, she was quickly and unexpectedly taken by it.
5.4 SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an English poet, critic, and philosopher, lived
from 1772 to 1834. Robert Southey and Coleridge were good friends
while they were bot h students at the University of Cambridge. The
classic "Rime of the Ancient Mariner" and "Frost at Midnight" from
Lyrical Ballads (1798; with William Wordsworth) marked the start of
English Romanticism. The unfinished "Christabel" and the popular
"Pleasu re Dome of Kubla Khan" are his other known poems. He wrote
"Dejection: An Ode" (1802), in which he laments the loss of his ability to
compose poetry, while in a miserable marriage and addicted to opium. He
afterwards authored Biographia Literaria, 2 vol. (1817), the most
important piece of broad literary critique of the Romantic era, partly
restored by his renewed Anglican faith. Coleridge had a restless life full of
turbulence and unrealized potential because he was imaginative,
complicated, and gifted wi th a special brain.
5.4.1 Kubla Khan :
In a semi -conscious state, Coleridge wrote the poem "Kubla Khan," which
was first published in 1816. The entire poem has a dreamy tone and is still
in the format of a vision. Kubla Khan's viewpoint was influenced by th e
reading of the travelogue, Purchas His Pilgrimage. When Coleridge read
the words, "At Zanadu Kubla Khan built a pleasure palace," in the book,
he had just taken an opium dose as an anodyne. However, this inspired his
artistic vision, and he wrote the 200 -line poem while still awake. When he
was completely awake, he recorded the poem. The poem's subject matter
is unimportant. It portrays the palace that Kubla Khan, the great ruler of
central Asia and Chengis Khan's grandson, constructed.
In the poem Kubla Khan, Samuel Tayler Coleridge describes how Kubla
Khan gave the order to build a majestic pleasure castle and what was done
to make it happen. On the banks of the sacred river "Alph," which flowed
underground for a great distance via inconceivable caves in to a sea where
the sun's rays could not reach, Kubla Khan commanded the construction
of a beautiful pleasure palace. As a result, a ten -mile-long area of fertile
land was surrounded for this reason by walls and towers on all sides.
There were gardens full of fragrant trees and fragrant flowers blooming on
one side of this land. The gardens were exceptionally attractive due to the
scenic waterways that ran through them. The opposite side of the land was
covered with dense ancient trees that were as old as th e hills and contained munotes.in

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41 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - I patches of grassy land that were warmed by the sun's rays. Coleridge
therefore creates a lovely castle that is vague but intriguing.
The poem has received a lot of praise for its skillful blending of sound and
rhythm with the various sections of the descriptions. The poet seemed to
have been drawn to the most amazing unknown gap that stretched across
the hill covered with cedar trees while describing the lovely gardens. It
simply defied all descriptions, was a really picturesque locat ion, and had a
sinister atmosphere. Under the light of the fading moon, it appeared to be
a magical location that was inhabited by fairies and demons as well as a
heartbroken lady -love who was lamenting the loss of her demon -lover. As
witchcraft and its pr actise are connected with such surroundings, the
obscurity and mystery of this location indicated both. Every instant, a
fountain burst forth from this abyss with such force that the earth around it
appeared to be dying and breathing heavily. Momentarily, it shot up
enormous chunks of rock that flew about like chaff when a flail was used
to crush it, before falling on the earth in all directions.
The sacred river Alph also emerged from this gap, flowing zigzag through
forest and valley for five miles before plunging into the serene ocean
through mysterious tunnels. There was a loud roar as it hit the water and
plunged into the ocean. In the middle of this commotion, Kubla Khan
overheard the voices of his forefathers telling him that the moment had
come for h im to pursue ambitious wars. Kubla Khan developed a luxury
addiction while spending time at the pleasure palace, therefore his
forefathers pushed him to abandon this way of life and prepare for a life
filled with adventures and battles. Kubla Khan's palace was a very
beautiful and attractive place to spend time. According to the poet, the
reflection of the pleasure -dome that dropped between the fountains
combined with the echoing sound emerging from the caves gave the
viewer the impression that the music wa s actually rhythmic. The palace,
which united a summer and a winter palace into one, was a structure of
exceptional design and an amazing achievement of architecture. Because it
was exposed to the sun, the building's top was heated, while ice that never
melted kept the lower chambers chilly.
Coleridge then reveals a lovely maid who has been fetched from a far -off
place to complete the romantic mood. He claims that once in a dream, a
female who had been brought from Abyssinia appeared to him. She was
singing in praise of Mount Abora and her beloved Abyssinia. The poet
wants to imply that the singer's song demonstrated homesickness. She had
been transported from her native nation to the faraway country of China,
and she yearned to get back there so she could p lay freely and joyfully
with the other girls from her native country. When the poet observed an
Abyssinian girl performing an exquisite melody on her dulcimer and
singing a lyrical song at Kubla Khan's pleasure palace, his imagination
was captured by the i mmense power of music. In the concluding lines, he
declares that he would create the magnificent castle of Kubla Khan in the
air if he could remember or learn the alluring song of the Abyssinian girl.
His notes would fill him to the brim. munotes.in

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42 19th Century English Literature He would be able to recreate the entire incident with the assistance of his
sharpened imagination. He will be able to recreate the entire palace in the
air, complete with the palace of Kubla Khan's sunny dome and cold caves,
with the help of his extensive training in this divinely inspired music. The
readers would believe that the complete glory of the palace had been
captured for them due to his creative imagination, which would induce a
willing suspension of disbelief. His sparkling eyes and burning hair and
lips would m ake them gasp in admiration.
They would be so frightened by his hysterical state that they would avoid
physical contact with him. They would lock him three times in a magical
circle, protecting themselves from being contaminated by his magical
spell. The p oet has experienced the honey -dew of divine lyrical
inspiration, and music which has begun to impact his appearance. They
would close their eyes to protect themselves from the effects of his spell.
The best illustration of poetry that is pure and devoid of any intellectual
content is "Kubla Khan." It charms with the beauty of its colour, artistic
elegance, and pleasant harmony since it is fundamental to the character of
a dream. Its worldview is crafted from the broadest range of sources,
including romance and travel publications. It is particularly charming
because of its isolated location and delicate creative realism. The main
methods for dreaming up the uncanny atmosphere are suggestion and
association. The poem has the best musical impact ever. The poem 's sound
effects are what really make it interesting. To create subtle harmonies, the
rhythm and even the length of the lines are changed. A network of
onomatopoeia, liquid consonant usage, and alliteration connects the entire
poem. Hard consonants can occ asionally be used carefully to create the
impression of force and harshness.
5.5 LET’S SUM UP In this unit, we have defined and discussed the Introduction to the
Romantic Age and some of the famous romantic poets, William Blake and
his poems; The Divine I mage from Songs of Innocence and “The Human
Abstract” from Songs of Experience. Wiliam Wordsworth, and his poems,
“Lines Written in Early Spring”,, and “Lucy Gray” and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge and his poem Kubla Khan. Throughout the course of this unit,
we have discussed the summary and analysis of the above poems as well
as some of the major characteristics of these poems.
5.6 QUESTIONS 1. Write a critical analysis of The Divine Image from Songs of
Innocence?
2. William Blake as a romantic poet with re ference to his poems studied
above.
3. Comment on the central theme of Lines Written in Early Spring by
Wordsworth. munotes.in

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43 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - I 4. Write a detailed note on themes and the plot of Lucy Gray.
5. Write a detailed note on the themes in Andrew Marvell’s A Dialogue
betw een The Resolved Soul and Created Pleasure.
6. Comment on the plot and features of Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s
“Kubla Khan”.
5.7 REFERENCES  Albert, Edward, and James Alfred Stone. A history of English
literature. Harrap, 1979.
 Alexander, Michael. A history of English literature. Macmillan, 2000.
 Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and of Experience. Vol. 1.
Princeton University Press, 1991.
 Aprilliawati, Ita. Reflection of Wordsworthâ s Loving Devotion to the
Nature In Lines Written in Early Spring by William Wordsworth.
Diss. University of Diponegoro, 2010.
 Blake, William. Songs of Experience: Facsimile Reproduction with
26 Plates in Full Color. Courier Corporation, 1984.
 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, and Thierry Bourquin. Kubla khan.
Queensland Braille Writing A ssociation., 1910.
 Jay, Martin. Songs of experience: Modern American and European
variations on a universal theme. Univ of California Press, 2005.
 Leask, Nigel. "Kubla Khan and orientalism: The road to Xanadu
revisited." Romanticism 4.1 (1998): 1 -21.
 Law, Philip. "Innocence Renewed: The Divine Images of Songs of
Innocence and of Experience." Theology 89.730 (1986): 275 -282.
 Piper, Andrew. Dreaming in books: The making of the bibliographic
imagination in the Romantic age. University of Chicago Press, 2011.
 Wordsworth, William. "Lines written in early spring." http://www.
poetryfoundation. org/poem/181415 Acesso em 10.03 (1798): 2014.
 Wordsworth, William. Lucy Gray. Jas. B. Ledsham, 1887.
Web Sources:
 https://poemanalysis.com/samuel -taylor -coleridge/kubla -khan/
 https://www.britannica.com/summary/Samuel -Taylor -Coleridge
 https://poemanalysis.com/william -wordsworth/lucy -gray/
 https://www.britannica.com/summary/Samuel -Taylor -Coleridge munotes.in

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44 19th Century English Literature  https://poemanalysis.com/william -wordsworth/lines -written -in-early -
spring/
 https://www.britannica.com/summary/William -Wordsworth
 https://poemanalysis.com/william -blake/the -human -abstract/
 https://poemanalysis.com/willia m-blake/the -divine -image/


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45 6
SELECTED VERSE FROM THE
ROMANTIC PERIOD
PART - II
Unit Structure
6.0 Objective
6.1 George Gordon, Lord Byron
6.1.1 Darkness
6.2 P. B. Shelley
6.2.1 Ozymandias
6.3 John Keats
6.3.1 On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer
6.3.2 Ode to Psyche
6.4 Let’s Sum Up
6.5 Questions
6.6 References
6.0 OBJECTIVES In this unit, we have provided a brief summary of the various aspects of
the Romantic Period along with some of the famous romantic poets and
their selected poems. We shall be briefly discussing George Gordon, Lord
Byron and his poem in detail that is “Darkness”, P. B. Shelley and his
poems “Ozymandias”, and John Keats and his poems “On First Looking
into Chapman’s Homer” and “Ode to Psyche.
Therefore, learners are advised to examine the poems ca refully in order to
understand the poetic nature of their works, and Romantic elements like
human emotions such as love, life and nature that are discussed in their
poetry. Students are advised to refer to scholarly articles and suitable study
materials th at will help them prepare better for the examination.
6.1 GEORGE GORDON, LORD BYRON George Gordon, Lord Byron, the most brilliant and famous of the
prominent English Romantic poets, was also the most popular poet in the
early 1800s. For many, he appeared to be the prototype of the wildly
popular, defiant, melancholic, and haunted by deep guilt Romantic hero he
created.
His multifaceted personality was reflected in satire, verse narrative, odes,
lyric, speculative drama, historical tragedies, confessional poetry, dramatic
monologue, seriocomic epic, and voluminous letters written in Spenserian
stanzas, heroic couplets, blank verse, terza rima, ottava rima etc. Few munotes.in

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46 19th Century English Literature writers have ever captivated the Western mind and heart like Byron did
through his dynamism, s exuality, self -revelation, and demands for the
freedom of oppressed people everywhere. His name and image as the face
of Romanticism were imprinted on 19th -century literature, art, politics,
and even fashion trends.
6.1.1 Darkness:
Lord Byron's terrifying poem of doom and sorrow is titled "Darkness." In
this narrative poetry, the speaker imagines a time when the sun has burned
out and the world is completely dark. In their panic, the catastrophe's
survivors eventually exterminate all surviving life in an ef fort to survive.
This poem makes the argument that humanity is helpless against a large,
heartless universe as well as its own violent, evil, and selfish instincts. The
Prisoner of Chillon, Byron's 1816 collection, contained this poem. Let us
take a look a t the brief summary of the poem.
Lord Byron's poem "Darkness" acts as a cautionary tale against the
escalating inequalities of the period as well as a forecast of what would
happen to the world if humankind did not evolve. This poem opens with a
descripti on of the sun, stars, and moon disappearing, leaving the earth to
fumble aimlessly through space. The entire population of the planet is
destined to live in darkness. They set fire to everything in their vicinity,
including palaces, huts, and eventually ho ly literature. Any form of light to
see by is desperately needed. By creating an atmosphere of total darkness,
kings are reduced to the status of commoners, and everyone suffers in
unison. As they leave, the men grieve and set fire to the woodlands. Some
people's impending and actual famine drives them insane. In order to
"satiate" themselves for what will be one of the last occasions, the men
tame the woodland animals but kill them. To the point where just two guys
remain and they start to fight, many men die of starvation.
At the same "altar -place," these men discover themselves amidst the ashes
of sacred objects. They succeed in starting a tiny fire, and when they are
shocked to see one another, they both instantly perish in fear. All flora, all
animals, and the human race are now extinct. Because the moon has long
since "extinguished," all water is quiet and there are no longer any tides.
The Universe is now the absence of clouds, which are useless to it.
Byron makes a remark at the start of this poem th at the reader must keep
in mind as they read the rest of it. The speaker claims that his experience
wasn't entirely a dream. The dream has a poignant message to convey
concerning the condition of the human race, which can either be ignored
as just that or taken as a prophecy. The speaker's dream centres on the idea
of "darkness" as a whole.
The dazzling sun has been extinguished in the dream, which has strong
religious, end -of-the-world overtones, and the stars in the night sky are
roaming darkling, which r efers to their absence of light as a result of their
own extinguishment. They are allegedly Rayless and Pathless. Just as
humanity has become lost, there is nothing to lead them. The arrival of
"Morn" does not end this night's darkness; rather, it only len gthens it. The munotes.in

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47 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - II sun has also been turned off, so the day doesn't offer any light. In the
terror of this awful misery, men are said to have lost "their passions." All
desire for earthly things has been lost, and the only thing left to live is the
fear of the darkness. The entire universe was "chill'd" or "frozen" "into a
selfish prayer for light." In order to restore their lives as they had been
before, men and women prayed for light for themselves rather than for the
good of humanity. But it won't be so simp le to go through this test, which
was probably sent by a God who was bringing about the end of the world.
People all around the world were able to see in the dark and various kinds
of buildings, including "palaces," "huts," and "The habitations of all thin gs
which dwell," were utilised as kindling to make beacons. No monarch or
peasant has anything the other does not have, and all of the dwellings have
been destroyed. At this point, the apocalypse has achieved its desired
result of reducing kings to peasant s and palaces to huts. The men "were
gathered round their smouldering homes" as the homes of humanity
burned in order to finally meet one another. It seems that this is the first
opportunity since the darkness descended for people to actually see one
anoth er. The poem continues, and the speaker describes that aside from
darkness, “A fearful hope” was all that the world contained, a hope to be
rid of the dark by whatever means necessary. The world's forests were
burned, but they "fell and faded," plunging ev erything back into darkness.
Finally, the third type "hurried to and fro" in an effort to rekindle the fires
as they were being put out. These individuals look upward with "mad
disquietude," or uneasiness, as these "funeral heaps" of burning trees and
hous es begin to fail.
The guys tilted their heads to the sky as their madness grew, saw a "pall"
of the past world, a tiny echo, a shadow of what once was, and then turned
their heads back to the ground. It is obvious that the populace of this evil
society is becoming more and more insane. They became even more
enraged by the "pall" of the previous world and "gnashed their teeth and
howled" like wolves lost in the night, angry at what had happened to them.
The "wild birds" are frightened by their howls and "flu tter" from the trees
to the ground. The speaker in Byron's poem now spends several lines
elaborating on the forest's inhabitants. The men are reported to have "slain
for food" the vipers, which are said to hiss but not bite. This idea of
equality is quickl y dispelled.
All creatures, including men, animals, and birds, were barred from the
body of his former master, which he guarded. He remained on guard until
all of the hungry monsters started looking for other creatures that were
"falling dead." One dog rem ained beside the dead and gave out a "piteous
and constant moan," refusing to attack his human companion or go in
search of food. The last of the good in this world is represented by this
lone, devoted dog. He is the lone animal that hasn't abandoned those he
loved. Until he passed away, he lay by the body and licked "the hand /
Which answered not with a caress." He refused to succumb to the
immorality that came to the rest of the world far too quickly, and the
darkness did not alter him. The only two guys who survived were "Of a munotes.in

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48 19th Century English Literature large city," while everyone else perished. The men are able to start a small
flame out of the ashes and are finally able to see one another. They both
pass away as a result of being shocked by the other's appearance or
perhaps just from having seen another being in the same depressing
condition.
The men will never learn the truth about each other or what exactly made
them adversaries. The speaker claims that it was not just their "shared
hideousness" on the surface that caused them t o perish. They were unable
to resolve their rivalry as a result of the starvation that the darkness
brought about. Byron describes how the ships were rotting in their own
bodies of water as he concludes this poem. Although their masts broke off
and fell to the ground, they did not float away. "Sleeping on the abyss
without a surge," they said. The tides stopped flowing in and out, and
there were no longer any waves in the water because the moon had long
since "expired." The Darkness did not require the assi stance of the clouds
because "She" had already transformed into the entire cosmos. As was
already said, this poem functions as both a cautionary tale about the rising
inequality in Byron's day and a prophecy about what would happen to the
planet if humans did not evolve. Only the savagery of an Old Testament
God can compare to the apocalypse that Byron has envisioned. A religious
and moral end to the world is implied by references to religious symbols
and events found throughout this poem.
“Darkness” Themes : Greed and selfishness in humans:
The speaker of Byron's poem "Darkness" has a terrifying dream in which
humanity rips itself apart when the sun goes out and the world is left in the
dark. The survivors of this catastrophe almost soon resort to murder and
cannibalism because they are starved and desperate in the never -ending
night. The poem implies that the literal darkness of a gloomy world is not
the true horror of this apocalypse. It represents the figurative darkness that
dwells in people's souls the g reed, violence, and selfishness that lurks just
beneath the surface of civilised society, waiting to burst out the minute
someone feels that their own survival is in danger.
The poem implies that this innate, self -centered desire to survive at all
costs is never truly far away and that individuals may readily turn against
one another in order to protect their own life. Human selfishness and greed
destroy not only lives but also the ecosystem. In order to create some
temporary light and warmth after running out of fuel, the survivors set fire
to every building and forest in the entire world. The poem implies that
when people feel threatened, they will act quickly to destroy everything
nearby in an effort to survive. Therefore, it is only fair that the final t wo
inhabitants of the planet, two long -time "enemies," pass away together,
not in a struggle, but in utter fear at the sight of one another's withered,
diabolical features.
Additionally, the fact that the entire poem takes place in the speaker's
"dream" s hows that the speaker is aware of their own inherent evil and munotes.in

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49 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - II selfishness. According to this poem, true horror lies within each and every
person rather than in any impending doomsday.
Human Corruptibility and the Vulnerability of Civilization:
The poem "Da rkness" offers a clear -cut, unwavering statement about how
helpless humanity is in the end. No human institution, from monarchy to
religion, survives the enormous "darkness" in the speaker's dream of a
post-apocalyptic Earth with a burnt -out sun. This poem makes the
argument that civilization is far more fragile than people would like to
think and that ultimately all human capabilities will be subdued by the
immense expanse of space. Humanity must face its frailty and fragility
almost as soon as the poem's sun sets. Without the sun, people would have
to burn their own houses to provide heat and light, which represents the
end of civilisation as we know it. Notably, not even the "holy" artefacts of
temples or the "thrones" of monarchs are spared. The poem imp lies that
even great human institutions like monarchs and religions are ultimately
impotent.
Furthermore, all human attempts to reclaim power eventually serve the
purpose. For example, when people burn down forests around the world to
create a little trans ient warmth, they only leave the earth even more
"lifeless" than before. The poem ultimately implies that "Darkness" is the
essence of the "Universe." Even the most impressive human abilities will
always be swallowed up and defeated by the endless, lightle ss nothingness
of the cosmos; people forget how little and feeble they truly are at their
own peril.
6.2 PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY Percy Bysshe Shelley's life and writings serve as a prime example of
English Romanticism, which can range from jubilant ecstasy to haunting
sorrow. Shelley embodied the key elements of Romanticism, including
restlessness and brooding, rebellion against authority, interaction with
nature, the power of poetry and the visionary imagination, the pursuit of
ideal love, and the unbridled s pirit perpetually seeking freedom. These
themes continue to be present in the substantial body of work he left
behind after his infamous drowning death at age 29. The very name of
Shelley has elicited either the utmost vehemence or the warmest
admiration, verging on devotion, since the start of his writing career at the
age of 17 and continuing throughout his life. Shelley's life and reputation
have had a history and life of their own apart from the reputation of his
various works, perhaps with the exceptio n of his friend George Gordon,
Lord Byron. This is more than any other English Romantic writer, and it
continued to develop even after his drowning death at the age of 29.
6.2.1 “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley :
Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote the sonnet "O zymandias." As part of a poetry
competition, Shelley and a friend wrote "Ozymandias" in 1817. They
submitted it to The Examiner, where it was printed under the pseudonym munotes.in

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50 19th Century English Literature Glirastes in 1818. The name "Ozymandias" is a nickname for Ramesses II,
an ancient Egy ptian king. In order to illustrate the fleeting nature of
political authority and to laud art's capacity to preserve the past, Shelley
used a crumbling statue of Ozymandias in the poem. The poem is a 14 -line
sonnet, but despite this, it deviates from the s tandard sonnet structure and
rhyme scheme. This is a strategy that shows Shelley's concern in
questioning traditions, both political and poetic. Lat’s take a look at the
poem.
The speaker remembers meeting a tourist "from an antique region," who
told him a tale about the statue's remains in his country's desert. A
gigantic, decaying stone skull is nearby and two enormous stone legs stand
alone in the sand, "half -sunk." The traveller informed the speaker that the
statue's frown and "sneer of frigid authority " show that the sculptor was
aware of the subject's emotions well. Despite the fact that both the sculptor
and his subject have since passed away, the memory of those feelings is
still "stamped" on the lifeless statue. "My name is Ozymandias, monarch
of ki ngs: / Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!" are written on the
pedestal of the monument. However, everything has vanished around the
crumbling wreckage of the statue, leaving nothing but the "lone and level
sands" that surround it. Although the line rhymes do assist to remind the
reader that this is not prose, "Ozymandias" reads more like a story than a
poem. The poem's speaker, who may be Percy Bysshe Shelley, uses the
personal pronoun "I" to relate the tale from his point of view. He describes
meeti ng a traveller from a distant nation in the opening line. This
statement initially raises the question of whether the traveller is from "an
antique land" or whether he has recently returned from one. The place
where the speaker first encountered this wande rer is also unknown to the
reader. The title identifies the country the traveller has been to Greeks
referred to Ramesses II as Ozymandias, a strong Egyptian king. As a
result, it is clear to the reader that the "antique land" is Egypt, one of the
world's earliest civilizations. The traveller talks about his adventures in
Egypt in the remaining lines of the poem, which are actually written in
dialogue. The traveller describes a statue he saw in Egypt in lines two
through four. The reader sees two enormous s tone legs lying in the sand of
the desert via the eyes of the traveler. The statue's face is obscured in the
area. The tourist can still make out the sculpture's grimace and sneer
despite the damaged face. He can infer from this that the monarch in
questio n most likely exercised total power and did so with an iron fist. The
tourist then focuses his attention on the statue's artist. Whoever the
sculptor is, he had a strong understanding of his subject, the author
observes. One could agree that the artist did a remarkable job of capturing
the ruler's passions. Even though the king is long dead, he still survives
thanks to the work of a simple sculptor. So, in this situation, who is more
powerful? It is without a doubt the sculptor.
In line seven, he also appea rs to be making the observation that, in
contrast to living things, art endures and is everlasting. The elegant
carvings and the master's hand endure past the traces of the past. The
traveller offers some intriguing details on the leader in this situation in the
following line. First, the pharaoh's hands demonstrate that he made fun of munotes.in

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51 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - II his subjects, yet despite this, he also provided them with food and care.
More information about the sculpture is provided in lines nine through
eleven, the last of which als o has inscriptions etched into the pedestal of
the ruler. The leader's pedestal has words etched onto it that also describe
Ozymandias' character. He is telling others who are around him to admire
everything he has made even though they do not understand w hat he has
accomplished. Instead, the speaker is forced to feel hopeless and terrified
of it. These exact phrases capture the leader's arrogance. But the tone
changes in the final three lines. The leader has since passed away, along
with his empire. Shelle y uses irony in these lines to illustrate how, despite
the damaged statue's persistence, the leader's culture has vanished. Similar
to the statue, it fell and was reduced to dust. These sentences have a lot of
impact. Nearly as if the tourists were making fun of the sovereign.
Furthermore, Shelley's use of language is crucial here. He conveys the
King's diminished strength by using words like "decay" and "bare." There
is nothing at all left. The leader has fallen, just like his country and just
like the sha ttered statue that formerly stood in his place.
Themes in Ozymandias :
The Transience of Power:
In "Ozymandias," one of Shelley's most well -known poems, the remnants
of an old king's statue in a strange desert are described. A pompous
inscription referring to the monarch as the "king of kings" whose
enormous accomplishments inspire awe and despair in all who witness
them, coupled with two "huge" stone legs standing upright and a head
partially buried in sand, are all that remains of the statue. In the poem, the
speaker recounts a tale a traveller told him about the ruins of a sculpture
described as a "colossal wreck" whose deteriorating physical state
symbolises the loss of Ozymandias's power.
The poem's portrayal of Ozymandias' downfall and his tyranny isn' t totally
made up: Ramesses II, an Egyptian pharaoh who significantly enlarged
Egypt's dominion and had several statues of himself constructed all around
Egypt, was known by the Greek name Ozymandias. In reality, an
inscription was found on the base of one of Ozymandias' sculptures,
according to the ancient Greek author Diodorus Siculus: "I, Ozymandias,
am King of Kings. Overcome one of my works if someone wants to
discover how magnificent I am and where I fall short." The poem serves
as a reminder to reade rs that civilizations have risen and fallen throughout
history by making references to an actual ancient kingdom and a real king.
No authority, however omnipotent a dictator thinks himself to be, is ever
lasting. Even the “king of kings” may one day be a f orgotten relic of an
“antique land.”
The Power of Art:
“Ozymandias” famously describes a ruined statue of an ancient king in an
empty desert. Although the king’s statue boastfully commands onlookers
to “Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair,” there are no works left to
examine: the king’s cities, empire, and power have all disappeared over munotes.in

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52 19th Century English Literature time. Even though the poem claims that the broken statue and its pedestal
are the only things left, art is one thing that has endured the ages. Since the
words etched next to the statue and the skillfully rendered monument itself
have endured long after Ozymandias and his empire vanished into
oblivion, Shelley's poem presents art as arguably the most durable means
of preserving humanity's heritage. Although the statue i s a “wreck” in a
state of “decay,” its individual pieces show the skill of the sculptor and
preserve the story of Ozymandias. The fragments interpret and preserve
the king’s personality and show onlookers throughout history what sort of
a man and leader Oz ymandias truly was.
Man Versus Nature:
Shelley was a romantic poet who held nature in the highest regard and was
unconvinced by human endeavours to control it. It is appropriate that his
"Ozymandias" asserts both humanity's powerlessness in comparison t o the
natural world and the fleeting nature of political power. The "colossal
Wreck" that the poet describes has most likely happened precisely because
of the desert's unrelenting sand and wind erosion pressures. This, together
with the fact that the statu e is now surrounded by "lone and level sands,"
shows that nature is an uncontrollable force to which humans are
eventually subject. The natural world is seen by Shelley as having much
more power than humans. Possibly the king of kings is Ozymandias, but
even kings can be toppled by mere grains of sand.
6.3 JOHN KEATS John Keats was born in London on October 31, 1795. Despite passing
away at the young age of 25, Keats had arguably the most accomplished
career of any English poet. In three compact volumes and a few journals,
he only released fifty -four poems. However, over the course of his brief
career, he took on the difficulties of a variety of poetic forms, including
the sonnet, the Spenserian romance, and the Miltonic epic, defining for the
first time the ir potentialities with his own unique fusion of earnest energy,
control of opposing perspectives and forces, poetic self -consciousness,
and, on occasion, dry ironic wit.
Although he is now seen as part of the British Romantic literary tradition,
in his own lifetime Keats would not have been associated with other major
Romantic poets, and he himself was often uneasy among them. Aside
from his acute awareness of the challenges he faced in his own literary -
historical era, Keats developed a rich, potent, and me ticulously controlled
poetic style in a relatively small number of extraordinary poems. This
ranks Keats alongside William Shakespeare of the sonnets as one of the
greatest lyric poets in English.
6.3.1 On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer :
John Keats, wr ote the sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer"
when he was only 20 years old. It is essentially a poem about poetry itself,
describing a remarkable reading experience in which a whole world seems munotes.in

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53 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - II to come to life. The poem explicitly discusses a tra nslation of Homer by
George Chapman, an Elizabethan poet whose translations were more
concerned with the reader's experience of the text than fidelity to the
original form. Soon after it was composed in 1816.
Keats has extensive experience reading poetry a nd is familiar with
Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, but he hasn't yet experienced the unique
aesthetic pleasure of reading Homer in George Chapman's translation. His
joy at Chapman's translation of Homer is comparable to that of an
astronomer who discovered a n ew planet or Cortez's when he first beheld
the Pacific Ocean from a mountaintop in Central America. Keats had
relatively little experience writing sonnets when he wrote his most famous
sonnet at the age of twenty. The poem is an excellent example of how
poetry influenced Keats. The vivacious language of the Elizabethans
thrilled Keats, who thought Chapman talked "loud and bold."
He employs two grins that are both lovely and appropriate to show the
reader the sense of discovery he felt after hearing his fri end Clarke read to
him from Chapman's Homer. When a new planet enters his field of vision,
I "felt like some watcher of the skies" at that point. Between ancient times
and 1781, when Sir William Herschel discovered the planet Uranus, just
one new planet ha d been identified. Keats obviously didn't have Herschel
in mind, but what mattered was the rarity of the finding and the emotions
that would overwhelm the finder. Nothing less would adequately convey
to the reader what occurred when Keats "heard Chapman sh out out loud
and bold."
Without a doubt, Keats' second simile is the sonnet's most stunning
passage. It is made up of various components that come together to form
an aesthetically appealing whole. Cortez has "eagle eyes" and is "stout,"
which both refer t o his lack of fear. He is the only man to find the Pacific
Ocean. His guys encircle him in silence as they exchange wild guesses
with each other. Their imaginations are overflowing with a dizzying array
of theories about what lies beyond the horizon, possi bly new Americas
rich with gold and priceless jewels as well as endless potential for fresh
discoveries. They are unable to speak because they are so overcome with
emotion. As he becomes more familiar with the world of poetry, Keats
bravely appropriates th is historical moment to portray his own thoughts of
having made a thrilling discovery that may be followed by countless more
similar discoveries.
The two metaphors that "swam into his ken" as the poem took shape in his
mind are consistent with the language of exploration and travel that he
employs in the sonnet's octave. In addition to being cohesive, as in any
other poem, a Petrarchan sonnet also requires the thought to "turn" at the
start of each sestet. Keats' two parallels from astronomy and expedition
are his turn. His use of the linking words "Much" and "Oft" to start the
two parts of his octave and the word "Then" to start his sestet ensures both
unity and coherence. He also carries the theme of discovery throughout the
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54 19th Century English Literature Themes o n First L ooking into Chapman’s Homer :
The Power of Literature:
In his sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer," John Keats
makes a case for the ability to write to transport readers. Reading George
Chapman's translation of Homer, a classical Greek poet, allow s the reader
to virtually visit the Greek setting in which Homer wrote. This has a
strong impact on the speaker, who then sings the praises of literature in
general. The poem makes the case that literature has a significant role in
society and also enables a sort of imaginal journey through time and place.
Thus, the poem also demonstrates that literature is not a fixed, unalterable
thing. It also has to be maintained with care and attention because it is
alive. Homer's literary world is now more accessible to readers, especially
those who would have found it challenging to read it in the original
language because of Chapman's translation work. In other words, the
impact of literature depends on the creative efforts of the authors
themselves. The speaker is s o utterly in awe of literature's power by the
poem's conclusion. Because of this, the speaker has the impression of an
explorer who has been rendered "speechless" by the scene in front of
them; Chapman's Homer appears to be a real, physical world rather th an
just words on a page.
6.3.2 Ode to Psyche by John Keats :
In this poem, the poet imagines that when he was ambling through a
grove, he either saw or dreamed of seeing the winged goddess Psyche. She
was lying on the grass in Adonis' embrace in a grotto m ade of flowers and
leaves. The "latest born and loveliest vision far / Of all Olympus' faded
hierarchy," he calls her. She is more beautiful than all other deities, yet she
doesn't have a temple with an altar and virgins singing songs to her. No
one burns incense or performs a musical instrument in her honour.
Keats wrote a number of odes between April and May 1819, the first of
which is "Ode to Psyche." Despite being one of Keats' best and most
important poems, "Ode to a Nightingale" and "Ode on a Grecian Urn"
have become more popular among readers. Venus was envious of the
merchant's daughter named Psyche, so Venus sent her son Cupid the task
of making Psyche fall in love with a repulsive, horrifying being. However,
Cupid fell in love with her as well and began visiting her every evening.
But eventually, Jupiter succeeded in giving Psyche immortality, and as a
result, Cupid was reunited with her for all time.
Keats undoubtedly saw replicas of paintings of Cupid in Psyche's bedroom
after reading the account in Apuleius. The myth's claim that Psyche, a
mortal, attained immortality through love particularly attracted Keats.
Romantic love was the embodiment of Keats' dream of perfect love.
Psyche had attained erotic love's immortality. She had fulfilled Keats'
romantic adolescent fantasy. He had to write his "Ode to Psyche," it was
only natural. Because it was unaware of Psyche until Apuleius created her,
classical antiquity did not revere her. However, Keats was able to munotes.in

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55 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - II accomplish what classical antiquity had no t in a poem on a smaller scale.
In the narrative related by Apuleius, the god of love, Cupid, entered
Psyche's room every night to share the pleasures of love with her. He
could construct her a shrine in his mind and keep one window open for
love to enter in.
The "Ode to Psyche" is a significant poem in Keats' body of work because
it captures his ideal of love, which is unattainable in this life but maybe
attainable in the afterlife and is unquestionably feasible in the imagination.
This imagination is capa ble of creating a shrine to Psyche with a window
through which Keats may enter and experience a perfect union with the
ideal woman. Keats discovered the perfect medium for the expression of
one of his deepest longings in the tale of Psyche. The "Ode to Psy che" is a
poem about young, warm Keatsian love, much like that in The Eve of St.
Agnes.
In addition to what the "Ode to Psyche" reveals about Keats, the poem is
filled with vivid imagery that is skillfully written. The roots of flowers are
"cool." A brief description of the fate that has befallen the Greek and
Roman religions can be found in "Olympus' faded hierarchy." The wind
makes the pines "murmur." A botanist and gardener named Fancy claim
that "breeding flowers, will never breed the same." The wings of Psyche in
the ode ("thy lucent fans") are explained by the fact that Psyche is the
Greek term for soul, and the soul was frequently shown as having
butterfly -like wings. Traditionally, Cupid had wings as well.
Themes in “Ode to Psyche” :
The Imagination' s Beauty and Power:
The goddess of the soul and the mind, Psyche, is found resting in a
woodland by a travelling speaker in "Ode to Psyche," who then swears to
erect a temple to her. But he won't build it by hand; this temple will only
exist in his mind. T he poem seems to be saying that doesn't make it any
less beautiful or true. This speaker views the creative potential of intellect
as an extraordinary force deserving of adoration. The poem creates an
inner shrine to the goddess of inner life by using the power of imagination
to honour the power of imagination. The speaker is already wandering
through his own mind before he ever meets Psyche. He asserts that
sometimes imagination is a more powerful force than reality because
dreams can seem just as real as the outside world. The speaker is lost in
thought while wandering through a forest when she comes across Psyche
and her lover Eros sleeping. She then wonders, "Surely I dreamt today, or
did I see The Winged Psyche with awakened eyes?" His skepticism
reveal s the depth of his inner vision: his imagination is so potent that he is
unsure of whether or not what he is seeing is real.
The speaker's imagination is also so potent that it can resurrect extinct
gods and change the speaker into a variety of other forms . The speaker
bemoans the loss of true belief in gods and goddesses while admiring
Psyche's beauty. The speaker completes a temple that contains Psyche
using this very strong imagination. This implies that Psyche, a munotes.in

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56 19th Century English Literature representation of the mind and soul, can reside in a stunning temple
created by the speaker's thoughts and situated in a mental forest.
So, in the end, this is a poem that praises the power of the creative mind
by using that capacity. When the speaker apologises to the goddess at the
opening of the poem for singing into her "own soft -conched ear," he is
absolutely justified in blushing a little because this is the creative,
imaginative mind singing in honour of its own beauties and joys.
6.4 LET’S SUM UP In this unit, we have defined and discusse d the introduction to the poets,
George Gordon, Lord Byron, P. B. Shelley, and John Keats with their
poems, Darkness by Lord Byron and “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe
Shelley, On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer and Ode to Psyche by
John Keats. Throughout the course of this unit, we have discussed the
summary and analysis of the above poems as well as some of the major
themes of these poems.
6.5 QUESTIONS 1. What is your estimate of Darkness by Lord Byron as his masterpiece?
2. Write an essay on P. B. Sh elley as a romantic poet with reference to
his poems.
3. Comment on the central theme of On First Looking into Chapman’s
Homer by John Keats.
4. Write in detail about “Ode to Psyche” and the major themes in the
poem.
5. Write a detailed note on the them es in George Gordon, Lord Byron’s
“Darkness”.
6. Comment on the features of John Keats’s poetry.
6.6 REFERENCES  Albert, Edward, and James Alfred Stone. A history of English
literature. Harrap, 1979.
 Barnard, John. John Keats. Cambridge University Press, 1 987.
 Daiya, Krishna. "The Timelessness of Art as Epitomized in Shelley’s
Ozymandias." Advances in Language and Literary Studies 5.1 (2014):
154-156.
 Hussain, Shafqat. "How Does He Develop His Themes? A Sensuous
Analysis of John Keats’ Selected Poems." Stre ngth for Today and
Bright Hope for Tomorrow Volume 22: 6 June 2022 ISSN 1930 -2940
(2022): 120. munotes.in

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57 Selected Verse from The Romantic Period Part - II  Mazurowski, David M. Lord Byron's' Darkness': Analysis and
Interpretation. AIR FORCE INST OF TECH WRIGHT -
PATTERSON AFB OH, 1977.
 MacQueen, Jessica. "Seeing Throu gh the End Time: From Lord
Byron’s “Darkness” to The Dark Mountain Project." Current
Objectives of Postgraduate American Studies 16.2 (2015).
 Sanders, Andrew. The short Oxford history of English literature.
Published in the United States by Oxford Universi ty Press Inc., New
York, 1994.
 Shelley, Percy Bysshe. "Ozymandias." 1817 –1819. Routledge, 2014.
307-311.
Web Sources:
 https://poemanalysis.com/samuel -taylor -coleridge/kubla -khan /
 https://www.britannica.com/summary/Samuel -Taylor -Coleridge
 https://poemanalysis.com/william -wordsworth /lucy -gray/
 https://www.britannica.com/summary/Samuel -Taylor -Coleridge
 https://poema nalysis.com/william -wordsworth/lines -written -in-early -
spring/
 https://www.britannica.com/summary/William -Wordsworth
 https://poemanalysis.com/william -blake/the -human -abstract/
 https://poemanalysis.com/william -blake/the -divine -image/


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58 MODULE - III
7
CRITICAL STUDY OF JANE AUSTEN’S
EMMA
PART - I
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Setting
7.3 Plot
7.4 Themes
7.5 Conclusion
7.6 Questions
7.7 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES This unit aims to study Jane Austen’s Emma as a novel of growth and self -
knowledge, the power of imagination, and social and class relations in 19th
Century England. In the guise of a narrative about match -making and the
attendant misadventures Emma, the eponymous heroine, encounters,
Austen reveals th e fallacies of pride, being blind to others’ motives and
feelings and the subtle gradations of class and social hierarchy in
contemporary England with intuitive understanding and her customary
wit. In this unit, the student will learn about setting, plot a nd the major
themes in Austen’s Emma.
7.1 INTRODUCTION Jane Austen’s Emma was published in three volumes in 1815, a year after
Mansfield Park (1814), and at the height of Austen’s popularity. The novel
regales us with the story of 20 - year old Emma Woodho use, who lives in
the little town of Highbury, only 16 miles away from London, and
considers herself to be an excellent matchmaker. The rest of the text deals
with the issues caused by Emma’s blindness to people’s true natures and
desires and the pain that her interference causes in their lives. The novel
ends with several marriages taking place, all between the right romantic
partners, including the remorseful heroine’s to Mr. Knightley.
About the author :
Jane Austen was born on 16 December 1775 at Steven ton, Hampshire. She
was the daughter of a clergyman. She grew up in a close -knit and loving munotes.in

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59 Critical Study of Jane Austen’s Emma Part - I family. Her father died in 1805. In 1809 the family shifted to Chawton in
Hampshire, a small village where most of Austen’s novels were written
and published. Both she and her older sister Cassandra remained
unmarried. She died at the age of 41, on 18 July 1817. Other than Emma,
her popular published novels are: Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and
Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), Northanger Abbey and
Persuasion, the two last ones published posthumously in 1818. Emma is
widely regarded as one of Austen’s best works. Her novels portray a
realistic picture of upper and middle -class Victorian society with astute
observation, wit and irony.
7.2 SETTING The set ting of the novel is Highbury, a small town in England, only 16
miles away from the city of London in the 19th century. Most of the action
is centred on drawing rooms of large estate houses: Hartfield, Donwell
Abbey, and Randalls. Since Austen deals with c ommunity, class and
matters related to love and marriage, most of the setting is indoors. The
story begins in the month of September with the widower Mr. Weston’s
wedding to Ms. Taylor, Emma’s governess and companion, continues on
in December with the Chri stmas festivities, the picnic at Box Hill in spring
and ends with the three weddings in September of the following year.
Highbury is a rural pocket but Austen only mentions the pastorality of the
setting in relation to the professions of Mr. Martin and Mr. Knightley.
Both are gentleman farmers, though Mr. George Knightley is the biggest
landowner in the area and belongs to a higher social class. Emma does
undertake walks to visit the poor in her village but Austen uses the natural
setting to focus on romant ic interests rather than pure nature description.
Mr. Woodhouse, Emma’s health conscious and widowed father, takes
walks in the front garden of his house but only for a few minutes at a time.
Jane Fairfax walks as she cannot afford carriages. Mrs. Goddard’ s
boarding school, where Harriet gets an education is mentioned several
times, though the inside of it is not described. So the plot is set in drawing
rooms, dining rooms, parlours and gardens as befits a novel of manners.
7.3 PLOT The novel begins with 20-year old Emma Woodhouse, whose governess
and companion, Miss Taylor, has just married the widower, Mr. Weston,
claiming that she made the match herself. 17 -year old Harriet Smith, who
lives at Mrs. Goddard's boarding school, catches Emma’s fancy and she
befriends her. Emma decides that Mr. Elton would suit Harriet perfectly as
a husband and encourages them to meet on various occasions. Mr. George
Knightley, who is 16 years older than Emma and is a friend of the family
advises her against interfering but she ignores his advice. When Harriet
receives a proposal from Mr. Robert Martin of Abbey -Mill Farm, she
subtly influences Harriet to turn down the proposal, because she considers
Harriet to be a superior person to Mr. Martin. Mr. Knightley and Emma
have a difference of opinion, as it was he who had encouraged Robert
Martin to propose to Harriet, considering him to be socially superior to munotes.in

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60 19th Century English Literature Harriet (who is illegitimate), as well as a gentleman. Emma decides to do
everything in her power to encourage a match be tween Mr. Elton and
Harriet although Mr. Knightley is against it. She encourages Mr. Elton’s
visits to Hartfield, paints a portrait of Harriet and when Mr. Elton goes off
to London to frame it she considers it as proof positive that her
matchmaking is beco ming successful.
Mr. Knightley’s brother, John, who is married to Emma’s older sister
Isabella, visits Hartfield with his wife and their five children, from
London, over the Christmas break. Mr. Woodhouse laments the shortness
of the visit as he loves to have his house filled with his grandchildren. His
evenings are otherwise spent playing bridge with his neighbours, the
Bates’, Dr. Perry, his physician, Mrs. Goddard and Mr. Knightley. On
Christmas Eve, the Woodhouses and the Knightley’s along with Mr. El ton
are invited to dine at Randalls with the recently -wedded Westons. During
the dinner they are told the news of the arrival of Frank Churchill. Frank is
the son of Mr. Weston by his first marriage. He was adopted and raised by
Mr. Weston’s brother -in-law and his wife. Frank is held in high estimation
by everyone in the gossipy village of Highbury although noone has met
him. They were all surprised that he was not present at his father’s
wedding to Ms. Taylor. Emma is happy that she will at last meet Frank ,
who is of her own age. During the dinner party it snows heavily, Mr.
Woodhouse becomes anxious and everyone leaves early. On the way, in
the carriage, Emma is accompanied by Mr. Elton, who ardently proposes
marriage to her. She is extremely surprised and so is he when Emma
reveals that she thought he was going to propose to Harriet. Emma refuses
Mr. Elton’s proposal, after which he leaves for Bath. Emma blames herself
for her wrong reading of the situation. When she tells Harriet of the
proposal, Harriet is affectionate and consoles Emma with promises of her
continuing friendship. John Knightley and Isabella return to London with
their children. Emma is disappointed that Frank Churchill is not visiting
Highbury as his aunt is ill. Mr. Knightley thinks Fran k is a spoilt and
immature young man.
Jane Fairfax, an attractive and educated young lady, is the niece of Miss
Bates. She comes to visit her aunt for two months. She is an orphan, too.
When she and Emma meet, Emma is not impressed by her. In fact she
considers Jane to be cool and reserved. Emma is further displeased to
learn that Jane and Frank Churchill knew each other from the time they
met at Weymouth. Mr. Elton in the meantime is engaged to a Miss
Augusta Hawkins, a rich young woman, whom he meets in Bath.
The village’s expectations are met when Frank Churchill finally visits his
father and his bride in Highbury. Everyone is pleased with him as he is a
cheerful and friendly young man. The Westons hope that Emma and their
son should marry each other. E mma, too, hopes that Frank proposes to her
but she cannot imagine accepting his proposal. Frank and Emma plan to
throw a dance at the Crown Inn but it is cancelled as Frank’s aunt falls ill
and he rushes to be with her. Because she enjoys his company on ma ny
social occasions and she likes him, Emma convinces herself that Frank is
in love with her and she with him. munotes.in

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61 Critical Study of Jane Austen’s Emma Part - I Mr. Elton, meanwhile has married Augusta Hawkins and they come home
to Highbury. Emma hosts a party for the newly -wedded couple at
Hartfield. She dislikes Augusta whom she regards as a talkative and
managing woman. Jane has extended her stay at Highbury. At the dinner
Augusta offers to find a post as governess for Jane and is refused politely.
Mr. Knightley is impressed with Jane and this makes Emm a wonder if he
is falling in love with her. Mr. Weston announces at the party that Frank
will be visiting them again soon.
When Frank returns, the party they had planned before his leaving, at the
Crown Inn takes place and Emma realizes that she is not in love with him.
At the dance, Mr. Elton behaves rudely towards Harriet and Mr. Knightley
steps in to dance with her, thus saving her from embarrassment. While on
a walk the next day, Harriet is saved by Frank from some gypsies. And
Emma regards this as a po sitive sign of affection for Harriet. Emma
decides not to interfere overtly this time. Harriet tells Emma that she is in
love with a man who is her social superior and Emma assumes that the
man is Frank. George Knightley shares a suspicion with Emma that F rank
Churchill and Jane Fairfax are closer than anyone imagined, but Emma
ridicules the idea.
At a party held in the summer at Donwell Abbey, Knightley’s home,
Emma sees George and Harriet walking together. At an outing to Box Hill,
Emma is rude to Miss Bates. The next day when she visits the Bates’ to
apologize for her behaviour, she learns that Jane will be leaving Highbury
soon to take up the post of governess. She feels sorry for Jane and tries to
be nice, but Jane does not respond with the same cordi ality. Frank also
leaves as his aunt, Mrs. Churchill falls ill and then dies. Mrs. Churchill
had not consented to the marriage of Jane and Frank but now that she was
dead Frank informs his father, Mr. Weston that he and Jane were getting
married. They had been engaged at Weymouth but had to keep it a secret
because of Mrs. Churchill’s disapproval. Harriet informs Emma that she
likes Mr. Knightley, not Frank. This revelation shocks Emma into a
consideration of her own feelings for George Knightley. Harriet then
leaves for London to visit Isabella. It is revealed that Harriet is the
daughter of a tradesman. Mr. Knightley is happy to learn that Emma is
not in love with Frank and proposes marriage to her. Emma accepts the
proposal but she cannot marry him as Mr. Woodhouse would then have to
live alone. Mr. Knightley suggests that he will come to live at Hartfield
after marrying Emma. After some persuasion, but mostly the robbery that
takes place at a ‘turkeyhouse’ close by, convinces him of the security of
having Mr. Knightley living with them, Mr. Woodhouse agrees to the
marriage. Emma marries Mr. George Knightley; and Harriet marries Mr.
Martin after he proposes to her again.
7.4 THEMES a. Vanity and self -delusion:
“[Emma] walked on, amusing herself in the consideration of the blunders
which often arise from a partial knowledge of circumstances, of the munotes.in

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62 19th Century English Literature mistakes which people of high pretensions to judgment are forever falling
into….” (113). Austen expresses irony in these lines, as it is not other
people, but Emma herself who is mistaken in her judgement of situations
and people. Her ego and vanity lead her to create issues in her friends’
romantic lives which causes them embarrassment and hurt. Emma’s self -
appointed role as matchmaker to the eligible young me n and women of
Highbury is undertaken light -heartedly, without any thought to the damage
she might cause with her unnecessary interference in the natural destinies
of her acquaintances. Mr. Knightley who is much older and wiser than her,
frankly shares his opinions with her about her ill -advised actions, but she
ignores his advice. Moved by vanity and eager for flattery, Emma is quick
to judge others by their admiration for her. One reason she was not
particularly fond of her brother -in-law, John Knightley, was because he
did not praise her.
Harriet Smith, whom Emma befriends in an attempt to alleviate her
loneliness in the activity of walking, is the first beneficiary of her acts of
kindness. "She would notice her; she would improve her; she would
detach he r from her bad acquaintance" (30). Emma assumes that Harriet is
in need of rescue and improvement, and when Harriet gets a proposal of
marriage on her own merits Emma’s influence and unspoken disapproval
cause her to reject the offer.
Simply because Frank Churchill spends time in her company and plans the
party at the Crown Inn, they both are of the same age and he is charming
and attentive to her, Emma assumes that he is in love with her. She cannot
see that he is using her company to hide the truth of hi s secret engagement
to Jane Fairfax whom he loves and esteems highly. Their true relationship
escapes her completely.
Mr. Elton who has been in the parish of Highbury only for two years is
also the victim of Emma’s matchmaking. Because he is charming, goo d-
looking and visits Hartfield often Emma plans to marry him off to Harriet.
But that plan falls apart when Mr. Elton expresses his interest in Emma
instead.
Although she is acquainted with Mr. Knightley all her life, Emma is also
unaware of her true feel ings for him. She realizes it only when Harriet
says she likes him. She misjudges Jane, too, because Jane is of a reserved
nature. Emma’s preconceived notions also blind her to the good qualities
in Mr. Martin, only because he is a farmer, and not her soci al equal. Her
rudeness to the harmless Miss Bates at Box Hill and her slighting of the
thoughtful Martin family are indications of her feeling of superiority.
Emma assumes an air of superiority and condescension because of her
wealth, social standing and the uncritical acceptance she has always
enjoyed from her father, sister and Miss Taylor. “The real evils indeed of
Emma’s situation were the power of having rather too much her own way,
and a disposition to think too well of herself…” Austen warns the rea der
thus on the first page itself. Though young, charming, vivacious, witty and
financially independent, Emma lacks self -awareness. munotes.in

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63 Critical Study of Jane Austen’s Emma Part - I b. Society and class consciousness :
Although the novel is set in the fictional village of Highbury, the social
tensions por trayed in it are real. As befits a novel of manners, Emma
highlights the social inequalities and proprieties inherent to each class.
Ownership of land bestows a superior status. The Knightley family owns
most of the land in and around Highbury so their soc ial status is
doubtlessly very high. But with such a status come responsibilities toward
those who depend on them. Mr. Knightley is actively involved in the
farms he owns and discusses improvements with his brother. He prefers to
walk rather than use his c arriages as he can then meet the villagers while
walking. His younger brother, who is a lawyer lives in London and is
married to Emma’s sister, Isabella.
Emma, herself, is unmarried and confesses to her friend Harriet that she
plans to stay a spinster. Sh e has no obligation to marry as she is financially
independent. This is very revealing of the status of women in 19th century
England. They could only hope to elevate their social status and secure
their futures by an advantageous marriage. Miss Taylor, Em ma’s
governess, marries Mr. Weston who was a trader in London. He buys
Randalls, an estate in Highbury and selects Miss Taylor to be his second
wife. His first marriage to a wealthy heiress, though it gave him social
status was not a happy one, as she spen t more than they could afford. She
dies young, leaving behind a son, Frank, who is raised by his wealthy but
extremely class -conscious uncle and aunt. Miss Taylor is considered to
have made a good marriage as she escapes the life of a governess.
Mrs. Chur chill’s objection to Jane Fairfax is her orphan status and her lack
of social connections. Frank knows his aunt’s attitude well enough to keep
his engagement to Jane a secret till his aunt dies and then he is free to
marry Jane with his uncle’s approval. J ane is beautiful, intelligent and
sensitive but she is regarded as Frank’s social inferior due to her lack of
wealth and family connections. Wealth need not be an assurance of
breeding as exhibited by the Coles and Mrs. Elton.
Mr. Elton is shocked that Em ma ever regarded him as an equal partner for
the illegitimate and impecunious Harriet. He proposes marriage to Emma
as he considers her to be his social equal. Upon being rejected by her, he
proceeds to marry Augusta Hawkins, a wealthy but sneering young
woman.
Emma too displays all the snobbery of her class consciousness when she
snubs Mr. Martin and is rude to Miss Bates. Her objection to Mrs. Elton
reveal her attitude of superiority "She brought no name, no blood, no
alliance. Miss Hawkins was the young est of the two daughters of a Bristol
merchant"(177). Mr. Elton is happy to have married a woman who could
claim 10,000 pounds a year. He considers himself lucky ‘not to have
thrown himself away’ (176).
Emma is conscious of class divisions as she thinks to herself: ’She would
have given a great deal, endured a great deal, to have had the Martins in a
higher rank of life’ (180). Harriet’s illegitimacy is overlooked by Emma munotes.in

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64 19th Century English Literature due to her affection, just as she is affronted by Mrs. Elton’s insult to Miss
Taylor . Emma angrily defends Mrs Weston when Mrs Elton expresses her
surprise at her ladylikeness. "I was rather astonished to find her so very
lady-like! But she really is quite the gentlewoman".
Inherited land and wealth is considered as superior to recent wea lth and
status. Emma's dislike of the Coles stems from their recently acquired
wealth. When their income from trade improves the Coles throw lavish
parties in their home to which everyone is invited. Social mobility is
possible in the early 19th century En gland due to the rise of the rich middle
class caused by the Industrial Revolution. The Martins too are an
upwardly mobile family as Mr. Knightley points out to Emma that Mr.
Martin is a true gentleman farmer.
Austen focuses on the social and financial ad vantages that men and
women gain by marrying the right partner rather than on the romantic
aspect.
7.5 CONCLUSION Austen’s Emma much like her other novels centering on women’s
constricted lives focuses on the concept of marriage as a means of
advancing up the social ladder or escaping the limited avenues their lives
have to offer. From the kindly and sympathetic spinster Miss Bates to the
governess Miss Taylor, from economically independent Emma to the
wealthy and vulgar Augusta Hawkins, all the women char acters are aware
that their social class will dictate their marital opportunities. The boredom
of their daily lives in a village community where no one is a stranger is
alleviated only by planning for weddings and the event itself. Parties,
balls, picnics, games are all organized for eligible men and women to find
their socially appropriate mates. Emma’s attempts at matchmaking are met
with utter failure due to her utter ignorance of her own nature as well as
her wilful blindness to the natures of those clo se to her. It is the awakening
to her own romantic nature which removes the misunderstandings between
her view of people in her world and the way they truly are. Emma is vain
enough to think she knows best where other people’s love interests lie but
she is proved wrong when her attempts at matchmaking fail and in fact she
causes embarrassment and pain by her needless interference. Her hubris,
though, paves the way for her self -awareness.
7.6 QUESTIONS 1. Describe the role that class consciousness plays i n the formation of
social and marital relationships in Jane Austen’s Emma.
2. Trace the growth and maturity of Emma’s character to awareness and
self-realization.
3. Discuss Emma as a novel of manners.
munotes.in

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65 Critical Study of Jane Austen’s Emma Part - I 7.7 REFERENCES  Austen, Jane. Emma. W. W. Norton & Company, 2000.
 Baker, William. Jane Austen: A Literary Reference to Her Life and
Work, 2008.
 Copeland Edward and Juliet McMaster. The Cambridge Companion
to Jane Austen Cambridge University Press. 2011.
 Davidson, Jenny. Reading Jane Austen. Cambridge Uni versity Press.
2017.
Suggested Reading :
 Austen, Jane Emma Rupa Classics 1999
 Maxwell, Richard, and Katie Trumpener. The Cambridge Companion
to Fiction in The Romantic Period. Cambridge University Press, 2008.
 Southam, B.C. (ed) The Critical Heritage to Jan e Austen, Vol @
1870 -1940. Routledge, 2012.
 “Jane Austen A Brief Biography” https://www.jasna.org/austen/
 Nardin, Jane ‘Charity in Emma’ Studies in the Novel, Vol. 7, No. 1,
JANE AUSTEN pp. 61 -72 The Johns Hopkins University Press,
spring 1975
 "A strong sense of class consciousness in Emma." Free Essays -
PhDessay.com, 18 Aug 2017, https://phdessay.com/strong -sense -
class -consciousness -emma/

*****
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66 8
CRITICAL STUDY OF JANE AUSTEN’S
EMMA
PART - II
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Character Analysis
8.2 Courtship, love and marriage
8.3 Women’s circumstances
8.4 Conclusion
8.5 Questions
8.6 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES The aim of this unit is to p rovide a brief analysis of the important
characters in Jane Austen’s Emma. Two important themes, love and
marriage and the issues faced by women in 19th century England will also
be elaborated on. At the end of this unit, learners will have gained a deeper
understanding of the background and motives of each character and the
social and economic circumstances which control their lives.
8.1CHARACTER ANALYSIS a. Emma Woodhouse :
‘Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever and rich, with a comfortable home
and happy disp osition, seemed to unite some of the best blessings of
existence; and had lived nearly twenty -one years in the world with very
little to distress or vex her’(1). Thus Austen introduces her heroine Emma
to the reader. Emma’s mother passed away when she was young and she
was raised by her father and her governess, Miss Taylor. Once Miss
Taylor is married to Mr. Weston, Emma finds time hang heavily on her
hands. She befriends 17 year old Harriet Smith and decides on a course of
improvement for her. She also se lects Mr. Elton, the young parson of
Highbury as the perfect match for Harriet. Emma plays matchmaker
without considering either birth, breeding or the personal preferences and
nature of the two young people involved. She simply assumes that she
knows best and they will do what is expected of them. She gets a rude
shock when Mr. Elton instead of falling in love with Harriet, proposes to
Emma instead. Emma’s problem is her active mind and the limited scope
that Highbury offers in the way of mental activity. The topics of
conversation are usually marriages and other social events. Throughout the
novel the words ‘whim’ and fancy are used in connection with Emma. Mr. munotes.in

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67 Critical Study of Jane Austen’s Emma Part - II George Knightley speaks of Emma as being "under the power of fancy
and whim." (101). Being raise d by an indulgent father and a governess
who was more a friend than a disciplinarian, Emma is used to getting her
own way and has a very good opinion of herself. Her attitude of
superiority is visible in her treatment of Mr. Martin and his proposal to
Harriet. She influences Harriet to reject him on the basis of his social
inferiority. She assumes that the Martins "must be illiterate and
unpolished"(40).
She is not a reader, nor is she an accomplished painter nor a pianist. She
lacks the self -discipline to apply herself to any activity consistently. Her
critical attitude towards Jane Fairfax stems from her jealousy of Jane’s
accomplishments and the approval Mr. Knightley bestows on her. Emma’s
visit to the poor in her village reveals her lack of true charita ble spirit. She
approaches them as a superior rather than as an equal. Emma's denial of
humanity to the poor family is suggested by the fact that she does not even
think of them by their name, but she considers them a social problem, "a
poor, sick family " which she will help to solve.
Next, Emma fixes on Frank Churchill as the perfect mate for Harriet.
Frank, however prefers to spend time with Emma. This ruse is a cover for
his secret engagement to Jane. Emma fixates on people’s behaviour and
lacks the wis dom to probe deeper into their motives and intentions. On
several occasions Mr. Knightley rebukes Emma for her snobbery and
advises her about the real nature of people, like Mr. Martin, Mr. Elton and
Jane Fairfax. Emma disregards his advice, and continue t o arrange others’
lives. She awakens to her own folly only when Harriet reveals that she
likes Mr. Knightley. It suddenly bursts upon Emma that Mr. Knightley
must not marry anyone other than herself.
It is to her credit that she cannot see ill in Mrs. Wes ton and Harriet. She
considers both to be her friends and therefore deserving of respect from
everyone else. Harriet’s questionable parentage and Mrs. Weston’s
profession of governess do not make them any less favourable in Emma’s
eyes. She also apologises to Miss Bates for her rudeness at Box Hill and
tries to make amends for her coldness towards Jane. Worry about her
father makes her postpone her wedding plans. At the end of the novel
Emma wishes for ‘nothing, but that the lessons of her past folly might
teach her humility and circumspection in future’ (455).
b. George Knightley :
George Knightley is a country squire with the largest land holdings in
Highbury, thus, the highest -placed in the social pyramid. He is around 36
years old, a rational, logical and benevolent man. His younger brother
John is married to Emma’s older sister Isabella. He is a frequent visitor to
Hartfield and is a good friend of Emma’s father. Emma respects him but
ignores his timely and astute advice about their acquaintances. He is the
only person other than his brother John who does not flatter Emma. In
fact, on many occasions he is critical of Emma’s behaviour. He rebukes munotes.in

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68 19th Century English Literature her for her unnecessary rudeness to Miss Bates and cautions her against
encouraging Mr. Elton.
His affection for Emma is evident, but she is blind to it. His criticism of
Frank Churchill’s haircut, his behaviour and manners is provoked by his
jealousy of the young man. In the absence of fatherly guidance in Emma’s
life, it is Mr. Knightley who plays the role of advisor. He proposes
marriage to Emma only after he is assured that she does not love Frank
Churchill. He also offers to move to Hartfield after his marriage to assuage
Mr. Woodhouse’s anxieties about being alone.
c. Harriet Smith :
Harriet is a 17 year ol d girl whom Emma befriends after Miss Taylor’s
marriage to Mr. Weston. She feels lonely and her lively mind takes on the
task of ‘improving’ young Harriet. Her parentage is unknown till the end
of the novel when it is revealed that her father is a trader i n London. She
boards at Mrs. Goddard’s school for young woman and becomes friends
with the Martin girls. She is a guest at their house for six weeks and during
this period Mr. Robert Martin falls in love with her. She is a kind -hearted,
humble and simple g irl who is given a sense of superiority by Emma. She
refuses Mr. Martin’s proposal and is hurt when she hears of Mr. Elton’s
proposal to Emma. Her regard for Emma does not abate even after that
incident. Harriet can be compared to a pawn in a game of chess whom
Emma moves around at will. She does find happiness in the end and
marries Mr. Martin.
d. Mr. Philip Elton :
Mr. Elton is the handsome, charming vicar of Highbury whom Emma
selects as a suitor for her friend Harriet. On his visits to Hartfield he
praises Emma’s painting of Harriet, agrees with her ideas and is kind to
Harriet. Emma assumes he would be happy to marry Harriet, a penniless
girl with no social standing. Mr. Knightley advises Emma about Mr.
Elton’s true nature and intentions which he revea ls in the company of men
only. He tells her that Mr. Elton is aware of his own worth and will marry
an heiress, which Emma refuses to believe. She is thus shocked when Mr.
Elton proposes marriage to her, instead of to Harriet. He is miffed and
leaves for B ath immediately afterwards after informing Mr. Woodhouse
by letter. In Bath he meets Miss Augusta Hawkins, a young woman with
ten thousand pounds income annually and gets engaged to her. He is
extremely pleased at his good fortune. In his behaviour towards Harriet
and Emma after his marriage he reveals himself to be a shallow and
unmannered person.
e. Frank Churchill :
Frank Churchill is the biological son of Mr. Weston. But he is adopted and
raised by his wealthy maternal aunt and uncle at Enscombe. He is
expected to attend his father’s wedding but makes his excuses via a
charmingly worded letter to Mrs. Weston. Highbury village looks forward
to his visit but he keeps delaying. Frank Churchill is a somewhat shallow, munotes.in

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69 Critical Study of Jane Austen’s Emma Part - II pleasure -loving, easy -going young man who m Mr. Knightley finds
spineless. He is handsome, charming and vivacious. He is secretly
engaged to Jane Fairfax but keeps it secret because he knows that his
wealthy aunt would disapprove. He spends time with Emma and uses her
to hide his true intentions . In this sense, he is just as manipulative and
selfish as Emma. On the positive side, he realizes the moral and
intellectual superiority of Jane marries her with his uncle’s approval.
f. Jane Fairfax :
Jane Fairfax was born to Mrs. Bates’ youngest daughte r, whose husband
died in war. Jane’s mother died of consumption and left her an orphan.
She was raised by her father’s friend Colonel Campbell who felt indebted
to Jane’s father as he had served him well in the army. She is sensitive to
the poverty of the Bates’ and eats very little at their table. She refuses to
call in Dr. Perry when she feels unwell as she fears that would add to their
expenses. She is the same age as Emma, is equally talented, handsome,
charming and well -regarded, a fact that turns Emma against Jane. She
meets Frank Churchill in Weymouth and gets engaged to him. Although
Jane is full of good qualities she is penniless and lacks social connections
so the only future she can look forward to is the profession of governess,
as she is well ed ucated. She marries Frank in the end thereby improving
her destiny.
g. Mr. Woodhouse :
Emma’s father is a widower. He is a gentle man who worries about his
own health and that of others. He is fond of giving advice about diet and
Mr. Perry, the local GP is his close friend. He does not guide Emma in any
way so this task is left to Mr. Knightley. He plays bridge with his regular
friends most evenings and dislikes any change to his life and routine. He
loves his daughters and his grandchildren but opposes Emm a’s marriage
as he would be left alone then. In this he displays selfishness and
dependence on Emma, like a child rather than a father.
h. Miss Bates :
Miss Bates is an extremely talkative woman. She utters banalities and can
talk for hours about trivial m atters, which suits Mr. Woodhouse. She often
makes up the bridge foursome at Hartfield. She is not young, good -
looking or wealthy. In fact she struggles to make ends meet on a very
small income, but she is invariably cheerful and well -liked by everyone in
Highbury. Emma insults her at the picnic at Box Hill and later apologises
to her. Miss Bates is the antithesis of the bitter thwarted spinster of the
Victorian gothic, she is effusive and thankful for her small blessings.
i. Mr. and Mrs. Weston :
They are the first married couple we encounter in the novel. Mr. Weston
was a Captain in the army who married a wealthy heiress in his youth. His
wife is disinherited after their marriage, so although it was a love
marriage, it was not a happy one. The first Mrs. W eston is a spendthrift munotes.in

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70 19th Century English Literature and the couple live beyond their means. She dies young. Frank Churchill
is their son. After her death Mr. Weston moves to London and becomes a
trader like his brothers. He settles in Highbury and settles at Randalls
estate. He is an amiable and sociable man, and well -regarded by everyone
in the village. He marries Miss Taylor in his fifties. This second marriage
is hopefully a happier one for him as Miss Taylor is grateful to him rather
than the other way round. Mrs. Weston (nee. Tayl or) is a sensible woman
in her thirties. She is Emma’s governess and later, her companion. A
cheerful and sensible woman she makes a suitable wife for Mr. Weston.
She is aware of her good fortune in marrying Mr. Weston and gaining a
secure life.
j. Mr. Joh n and Mrs. Isabella Knightley :
Isabella is Emma’s older sister and Mr. John Knightley is Mr. George
Knightley’s younger brother. They have five children and live in London
where John is a lawyer. To all appearances, it is happy marriage in which
both partn ers are well -suited to each other. Isabella is a doting mother and
has a tendency to worry about her children’s health. She is a loving
daughter and has a cheerful personality as evidenced by all the invitations
she gets to lunch and dinner during her visi t to Highbury. She refuses her
father’s invitation to extend her stay at Hartfield and returns to London
with her husband as she cannot bear to stay apart from him. Theirs is an
example of a happy marriage in the novel: one between social equals and
person alities which complement each other. He is blunt in his appraisal of
people and treats Emma in a non -partisan manner. He is content in his
domestic circle and she is content to take care of him and her family.
8.2 COURTSHIP, LOVE AND MARRIAGE The novel begins with a discussion of Emma’s companion and former
governess, Miss Taylor’s marriage to the widower Mr. Weston. Mr.
Woodhouse who does not like any change in his daily routine considers it
an inconvenience, though Emma is happy that Miss Taylor is mar ried and
living close -by. Mr. Weston is described as being in trade in London, an
amiable man who loves being in society. His first marriage to wealthy
Miss Churchill, in his youth, was for love. She lived beyond their means
as he was only a Captain in the army, and could not afford many of the
luxuries his wife was used to. The marriage ended when she died young.
His only son by that marriage, Frank, was raised by his wife’s family. His
courtship of Miss Taylor begins some four years before their wedding
when he rescues Miss Taylor and Emma from getting wet in a sudden
downpour by borrowing two umbrellas. Emma takes the credit for
encouraging their relationship, which culminates in their marriage. Emma
is well aware of the advantages this marriage brings t o Miss Taylor, who
gains a better social position and financial security. This happy occurrence
encourages her to search for mates for all her eligible friends and
acquaintances. Matchmaking becomes her pastime.
The first person to enter her radar is Miss Harriet Smith, a young woman
of 17, who lives at Ms. Goddard’s boarding school. She befriends her and munotes.in

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71 Critical Study of Jane Austen’s Emma Part - II tries to improve Harriet in all the social graces. Harriet is friends with the
young ladies at Abbey -Mill farm, the Martins, who have a brother, Robert.
He notices Harriet on her visits and proposes marriage to her after
consulting Mr. Knightley. Emma influences Harriet’s refusal of the
proposal as she considers Mr. Martin to be socially inferior to Harriet,
ignoring all his many virtues of kindness, intel ligence and general good
nature. Mr. Knightley is furious on hearing this and tells Emma a few
truths about the disadvantages of Harriet’s securing a better proposal: her
parentage (no one knows who her parents are), her lack of financial
support and an in different education. He warns Emma of the folly of
encouraging Harriet to aim higher than her social position entitles her to
marry into. Mr. Martin is a gentleman farmer, and a perfect match for
Harriet, according to Mr. Knightley.
Emma, meanwhile encour ages the attentions of Mr. Elton, the parson, on
behalf of Harriet. In Austen’s times, it was usually the younger son’s
belonging to good families who entered the clergy. Mr. Elton is
respectable, if not wealthy. He is good -looking and well -mannered. So,
Emma decides that he is a good match for Harriet. He becomes a frequent
visitor at Hartfield. They take long walks together, Emma visits the
Vicarage with Harriet and Mr. Elton praises the portrait of Harriet that
Emma has painted. He even takes it up to Lo ndon to be framed. He visits
Harriet when she is suffering from cold and throat -ache. To Emma, all this
attentiveness affirms the idea that Mr. Elton is in love with Harriet.
Unfortunately matters go awry when one cold snowy evening in the close
confines o f a carriage Mr. Elton proposes marriage to Emma. She is
shocked and refuses his proposal. The miffed young man then leaves for
Bath. Mr. Knightley had warned Emma that her behaviour in encouraging
Mr. Elton could be misconstrued but she had ignored his wa rning. He had
also warned Emma about the true intentions of Mr. Elton: “He knows the
value of a good income as well as anybody. Elton may talk sentimentally
but he will act rationally…I have heard him speak with great animation of
a large family of young ladies that his sisters are intimate with, who have
all twenty thousand pounds apiece”. (71) This reveals that marriage is not
only the escape route for women to a better financial and social standing,
but also for men. This can be seen in the case of Mr. Weston who married
a wealthy heiress the first time and Mr. Elton who marries Miss Augusta
Hawkins, from a rich family, whom he courts in Bath.
Jane Fairfax, the granddaughter of the impoverished Mrs. Bates, visits
Highbury for three months. Her parents died when she was three years old
and she was raised by her father’s friend and his family in London as if
she was their own daughter. Their biological daughter gets married to an
excellent young man Mr. Dixon, who is their family’s equal in wealth and
social standing, almost as soon as she is introduced into Society. Jane,
lacking both, but beautiful and well -educated can hope, at the most, for a
job as governess in a well -to-do family. She, however, meets Mr. Frank
Churchill, in Weymouth and the two get e ngaged. They have to maintain
secrecy as Mrs. Churchill, Frank’s wealthy aunt who raised him, would
disapprove his marrying a penniless girl. Both Jane and Frank meet again
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72 19th Century English Literature Dinner parties, dance parties, picn ics and casual visits are organized for
the young people of the village of Highbury to meet and find a suitable
match. But Emma, forever the matchmaker, manages to pair the wrong
couples. She fancies herself in love with Frank Churchill as he is
handsome, friendly and close to her in age. Also, she knows the Westons
would be pleased at the match. Emma assumes he is in love with her too
as he likes spending time with her and agrees with her critical remarks
regarding Jane Fairfax. It is clear -eyed Mr. Knight ley who guesses that
there might be affection shared between Frank Churchill and Jane Fairfax.
Mr. Knightley is the largest land -owner in that area and beneath him in
status and wealth are the Woodhouses. Mr. Knightley’s younger brother,
John is married t o Isabella, Emma’s older sister. They live in London with
their five children. It is a socially appropriate match as well as an
affectionate one. Mr. Knightley, who is older than Emma by sixteen years,
has a better understanding of human nature and advises Emma when she is
wrong in her judgement. His counsel is mostly ignored. Emma realizes her
own true feeling regarding him only when Harriet tells her that she likes
Mr. Knightley. This shocks Emma into self -reflection. Mr. Knightley does
not share Emma’s h igh opinion of Frank Churchill and because they spend
so much time in each other’s company he assumes that Emma is in love
with Frank. When Emma reveals to him that she regrets flirting with Frank
Churchill and does not need any comfort because he is engag ed to Jane,
Mr. Knightley is relieved and proposes marriage. Emma happily accepts
but worry for her father’s loneliness makes her reluctant to marry at once.
Mr. Knightley offers to move into Hartfield after the marriage and this
sacrifice on his part assu ages Mr. Woodhouse’s anxiety. Emma’s
engagement to Mr. Knightley is welcomed by the entire village of
Highbury as a marriage between equals. In spite of Emma’s needless
interference Harriet marries Mr. Martin in the end. Three marriages are
celebrated at the end of the novel: Mr. Knightley and Emma, Frank
Churchill and Jane and Harriet Smith and Mr. Martin.
Frank marries Jane only after his aunt’s death and Mr. Churchill gives his
approval, Harriet with the blessings of Emma and Mr. Knightley, and
Emma h erself after her father agrees to the union. The status quo is
maintained in the end. Marriages are arranged between social equals. In
the novel Austen provides a realistic picture of the lives of young women
in a society which is class conscious and marri age is seen as the only way
to change their destiny.
8.3 WOMEN’S CIRCUMSTANCES That 19th century England is undoubtedly patriarchal is exposed in Emma,
much as it is in Austen’s other novels. Except for the heroine, Emma, all
the other women in the novel are financially dependent on their male
relatives for their financial security. Miss Taylor is worried about her
future when she meets Mr. Weston and marries him, thus securing her
financial position. Miss Jane Fairfax for all her beauty, intelligence and
accomplishments is dependent on the kindness of Colonel Campbell and
his family for her future prospects and eventually accepts the job of munotes.in

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73 Critical Study of Jane Austen’s Emma Part - II governess. Jane maintains a quiet exterior countenance and is affable to
everyone she meets, including Emma as she i s aware that her social and
financial status would not allow her to create a flurry wherever she goes.
She too marries wealthy Frank Churchill thereby escaping drudgery and
an uncertain future. Miss Augusta Hawkins is a woman with an annual
income of ten thousand pounds or thereabouts a year, though she vastly
exaggerates her income to be twenty -thousand to Mr. Elton. Her father is
in trade, setting her socially among the nouveau riche who formed the
rising middle class in England. Miss Bates is unmarried and lives with her
mother in straitened circumstances. Her neighbours are very kind and
provide gifts to them often. They are invited frequently to Hartfield for
dinner and Mr. Perry does not charge them for his medical advice. Miss
Bates’ constant stream of gratitude could stem from her awareness of the
fact that she lives on the kindness of her friends and neighbours. Harriet
Smith is the illegitimate offspring of a London trader who finances her
stay and education in Mrs. Goddard’s school but does not ac knowledge
her as his daughter in society. This limits her chances of marrying well. It
is fortunate that Mr. Martin is enamoured of her and marries her despite
her first rejection of him. Emma, for all her talk of financial independence,
toes the line and marries Mr. Knightley, her social equal. The autonomy
she imagines is a chimera, she is just as representative of young women in
those times as all the others in the novel. She lives with a hypochondriac
father whose gentle control is not visible till she informs him of her
marriage plans. Although she tells Harriet that she does not need to marry
in order to secure her future because she is wealthy, Emma marries a man
who is sixteen years older than her. He epitomises rationality and clear
thinking, critiq ues Emma’s actions throughout the novel and tries to
reform her. The reader would not be mistaken in assuming that she
marries a father figure, rather than a romantic partner. To a lesser or
greater extent, marriages are entered into for convenience, for s ocial
betterment or economic considerations and to fulfil ones social and
familial obligations.
8.4 CONCLUSION In Emma, unlike in her other novels Austen has presented a heroine who
enjoys financial autonomy. She uses this standpoint to compare women
from every status of British society, the wealthy, the middle class, the
impoverished, the working poor and the married. She presents various
types of marriages too. As such, the novel portrays a realistic picture of
society undergoing rapid change, from feuda l to industrial. Emma tries to
hang on to outmoded ideas but has to learn to treat people as her equals
under the guidance of Mr. Knightley. In a sense, the novel is a
bildungsroman as it traces the growth of the heroine from vanity and pride
to self -aware ness.
8.5 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the theme of love and marriage in Jane Austen’s Emma. munotes.in

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74 19th Century English Literature 2. Compare the characters of Emma and Jane Fairfax as foils for each
other.
3. Analyse the relationship between Emma and Mr. George Knightley.
4. Discuss the issues f aced by women in the 19th century British
patriarchal society portrayed in the novel.
5. Describe the various marriages in the novel.
8.6 REFERENCES  Austen, Jane Emma Rupa Classics 1999
 Fletcher, Loraine. “Emma: The Shadow Novelist.” Critical Survey,
vol. 4, no. 1, 1992, pp. 36 –44, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41555621.
Accessed 18 Apr. 2022 .
 Moffat, Wendy ‘Identifying with Emma: Some Problems for the
Feminist Reader’ Colleg e English, National Council of Teachers of
English Vol. 53, No. 1, Jan., 1991, pp. 45 -58
Suggested Reading :
 Franklin, Caroline. The Female Romantics Nineteenth Century
Women Novelists and Byronism. Routledge,2012.
 Lodge, David, Jane Austen Emma: A Casebook , Macmillan, 1991.
 Monaghan, David. Jane Austen in a Social Context. Barnes 1981
 Vicinus, Martha, ed. A Widening Sphere: Changing Roles of
Victorian Women.
 Bloomington 1977
 Waldron, Mary. Jane Austen and the Fiction of her Time. Cambridge
University Press . 2001.


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75 9
CRITICAL STUDY OF CHARLES LAMB’S
ESSAYS OF ELIA
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 ‘Christ’s Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago’
9.3 ‘The Dream Children: A Reverie’
9.4 ‘Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading’
9.5 Conclusion
9.6 Questions
9.7 References
9.0 OBJECTIVES The aim of this unit is to introduce learners to the works of the 19th
century popular essayist Charles Lamb. The essays are full of charm,
humour, sympathy, astute observations about London and its people and
sometime s, pathos. Although Lamb takes on the persona of Elia the essays
contain autobiographical information about the writer’s own life. At the
end of this unit the learners will have a better understanding of the themes
and style in the essays selected for stud y.
9.1 INTRODUCTION Charles Lamb was born on 10th February 1775 in London and died on 27th
December 1834. He is a popular essayist and co -wrote “Tales from
Shakespeare” with his sister Mary Lamb. In the essays chosen for study
Lamb writes as Elia, a name he adopted as nom de plume when he wrote
the first essay ‘The South Sea House’ published in The London Magazine
in 1820. All his essays published in the magazine were later printed as a
collection Essays of Elia in 1823. The essays explore various topics but
the unifying factor is the conversational writing style he employs, and the
thin line he treads between fiction and non -fiction.
The Personal Essay:
During the Romantic period three essayists became famous for their
personal, informal style and subje ctive discourses: Charles Lamb, William
Hazlitt and Thomas de Quincey. Like the Romantic poets these writers
established new styles and principles of writing. The essay form evolved
from Bacon to Lamb in subject: objectivity to subjectivity; and in style,
from formality to a more familiar conversational style of writing. They
reveal their whims and fancies, their opinions and experiences without
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76 19th Century English Literature In his essay ‘Christ’s Hospital Five and Thirty Years Ago’, Lamb as Elia
reveals his exper ience of school life, in ‘The Dream Children: A Reverie’
his sentimentality and pathos, and his affection for his sister in ‘Mrs.
Battle's Opinions on Whist’. Various members of his family are
introduced to us in ‘my Relations’.
William Hazlitt had a rare command over words, understood their full
significance, and could define them accurately and precisely. His
expository style is seen at its best in the opening of his essay "On poetry".
He was an energetic writer and his concept of ‘gusto’ which he applie d to
the criticism of the arts can be seen in his essay writing style also. His
model was Montaigne and his hero Napoleon. He used the personal
pronoun ‘I’ in his essays and this made the essays seem very personal and
confessional. Lamb and Hazlitt were go od friends and came under the
influence of their contemporaries like Wordsworth and Coleridge. Nature,
imagination and memory are common topics in the essays of both Lamb
and Hazlitt.
9.2 ‘CHRIST’S HOSPITAL FIVE AND THIRTY YEARS AGO’ Summary:
In this essa y Lamb focuses on the brutal treatment meted out to the
students, aged between 10 and 18 years of age, boarded at Christ’s
Hospital, which is a charitable school. The food was meagrely distributed,
it was tasteless and the nurses ate the portion meant for the students in the
school and the authorities were indifferent. In the summer months, they
swam in the New River and in the winter holidays they went innumerable
times to the Royal Menagerie (the zoo) as the entry was free. Elia suffered
intense lonelines s as his family lived far away and his few relatives in
London quickly grew tired of his frequent visits during his school breaks.
The homesick boy had no friends in the school. He describes the cruelty
meted out to the younger children by the older ones, especially, the
‘monitors’. They would be woken up in the middle of the night and beaten
up for minor faults. They were placed in fetters or locked up in a basement
room for a day and a night or whipped and then expelled if they did not
behave well. The sc hool was divided into two sections : upper and lower.
The Rev Matthew Field was in charge of the lower -section. He was a
scholarly master and did not believe in harsh punishments. The students
enjoyed their free time busy in their own boyhood pursuits as he was often
absent for long periods of time. The Rev James Boyer was in charge of the
upper form, who although he was a good teacher, was a strict
disciplinarian who whipped his students.
Analysis:
Christ’s Hospital was established in 1553 by the order o f King Edward VI
as a private charitable boarding school for the better education of the
children belonging to poor families. It is run by a board of governors and
many benefactors. Its original location was at New Gate Street in London. munotes.in

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77 Critical Study of Charles Lamb’s Essays of Elia Leigh Hunt and Sam uel Taylor Coleridge, both of whom were students at
Christ’s have written about their experiences there. Coleridge and Lamb
formed a life -long friendship while they were students together at Christ’s.
Seven years before the publication of this essay Lamb h ad published an
essay under his own name about his memories of being a student at
Christ’s-‘Recollections of Christ’s Hospital’. Under the assumed name of
Elia he describes his years at Christ’s from the perspective of Coleridge -“a
poor, friendless boy” (2 3). Lamb’s family resided in London so he visited
them during the holidays and very often got food sent to him from home.
These advantages were not available to a majority of the students. Along
with the mention of corporal punishment the essay focuses on various
foodstuff -sugar, ginger, hot loaf, bread and butter, roast veal, griskin -
which were available to Lamb because they were brought to him ‘daily by
his maid or aunt’ (23) but denied to the other students, who had to
consume scanty mutton crags, boile d beef with marigolds floating on
them, and milk porritch’(22). Another advantage was the presence of his
benefactor who was also his family’s neighbour in London. This provided
a protection against the cruelty of the older students and the meanness of
the staff. In spite of the saga of cruelty and deprivation related by Elia,
Lamb’s irresolute attitude towards the school authority is revealed through
the incident where there was a fair inquiry into a student’s theft of food by
the Governors and the praise heaped on the boy when the real situation
was found out. James Boyer, too, is later praised in the essay for breeding
academic excellence. Though the point of view is that of Elia, a young
home -sick boy, Lamb’s more just voice peeps through sometimes in hi s
fairer attitude towards the school.
9.3 ‘THE DREAM CHILDREN: A REVERIE’ Summary :
‘Children love to listen to stories of their elders, when they were children;
to stretch their imagination to the conception of a traditionary great -uncle
or grandame whom they never saw’ (139). So begins Lamb’s
imaginatively nostalgic essay ‘The Dream Children: A Reverie’.
Elia's children, Alice and John, gather around him to hear stories about
their great -grandmother Field, who lived in a mansion of which she acted
as car etaker. The wealthy family which owned the house lived in another
mansion. She lived in it as if the mansion belonged to her and kept up the
dignity of the old place which was full of antiques. At her funeral, Elia
says, everyone praised her goodness and religious faith: she could recite
Psalms and parts of the New Testament from memory. Even though she
suffered from Cancer she maintained her cheerful spirits. Though Elia
never came across the two ghosts of babies who haunted the house,
Grandmother Field n ot only saw them, she was happy to have them
around for company as they did not bother her. As a child Elia had
complete freedom of the grounds around the mansion and ate the fruits off
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78 19th Century English Literature At this point Elia breaks off his telling and notices that his children are
eating a shared plate of grapes.
Grandmother Field loved all her grandchildren but she loved John the best.
He was a big, good -looking boy who used to carry Elia around on his back
when Elia became lame. Elia r egrets that was unable to care for John in
his last days as John cared for him in his youth. At this point in the telling,
Elia's children start to cry, asking not to hear about their uncle, but to hear
about their dead mother instead. Elia recounts his co urtship of their
mother, for seven years she rejected him but he persevered. As he looks at
his daughter Alice and thinks that she is the image of her dead mother,
Alice disappears. A ghostly voice informs Elia that Alice and John are not
his children but they belong to a man called Bartrum whom Alice married.
Elia jerks awake to realize that he had been dreaming.
Analysis:
In this essay the dreaming Elia tells a nostalgic tale of a carefree boyhood
and young love leading to marriage. However, Lamb’s life was a tragic
one which did not include marriage. His proposal to Ann Simmons was
rejected and he spent some time in an asylum. A few years later he
proposed to the actress Fanny Kelly and was rejected again. His sister
suffered from manic episodes and dur ing one such period of mania
stabbed their mother to death. Lamb took responsibility for her and they
moved out of London. This essay is, therefore full of the pathos of
unrealized domestic bliss.
9.4 ‘DETACHED THOUGHTS ON BOOKS AND READING’ Summary:
This essay begins with a few lines from Lord Foppington: ‘To mind the
inside of a book is to entertain one’s self with the forced product of
another man’s brain’ (235). Then Elia confesses that he spends a lot of
time with other’s thoughts. He likes to read a ll kinds of works. ‘I have no
repugnances’, he says (236). History and some Latin classics like those of
Hume and Gibbon, are not books at all. He goes on to praise books which
look well used. According to him, the contents of a book must be
magnificent, n ot the covers. The more dog -eared a book, the more worth
reading it would be. He gives the reader examples of the works of Milton
and Fuller whose original works do not exist. Only reprints are available
and this is a testament to their readability and ete rnal quality.
There are certain books which must be enjoyed at leisure, like the Faerie
Queene or Milton’s works. They are enjoyable to read aloud. However, he
finds it annoying when newspapers are read aloud, especially in banks,
barber shops and public houses. Newspapers, magazines and pamphlets,
according to Elia, must be skimmed over with one’s own eyes. Novels are
also not considered appropriate for shared reading, but a solitary
enjoyment. The best readers, according to him, are the ‘street -readers’-the munotes.in

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79 Critical Study of Charles Lamb’s Essays of Elia poor who cannot afford to buy or borrow books so snatch some learning
from open roadside stalls, till they are shooed away by the owner.
Analysis:
This essay was published in London Magazine in 1822 and later in a
collection Last Essays of Elia in 183 3.
Since Lord Foppington is a character from the Restoration play The
Relapse by John Vanbrugh and the quote is taken from the play, the reader
knows immediately that those lines need not be taken seriously. From this
essay the reader gathers the impressi on that for Lamb reading as an
activity was a private indoor one rather than a public one meant for an
audience. He does not like hearing people reading aloud from newspapers
as such readers are mostly slow. Out of the circle of his friends Lamb
finds read ing in public to be embarrassing as it attracts unwanted attention
to his preferences in reading. Once he was reading the novel Pamela in the
park when he met a lady friend and she began reading with him and Lamb
found this incredibly embarrassing. Since t he essay expresses his opinion,
the word ‘detached’ in the title is ironic.
Analysis of Style:
Virginia Woolf remarks that to bring “personality into literature [is] the
essayist’s most proper but most dangerous tool” (46). The style in which
Lamb presents his memories of his school years as Elia is unique. In the
mode of the Romantic essayists, Lamb’s essays are self -reflective and
express his feelings, desires and fantasies. The essay by definition is a
piece of non -fiction, but Lamb looks back on the mem ories of his
childhood from the view -point of another person and this change alters the
perspective of the institution in ‘Christ’s Hospital’. As against the more
formal essays, Lamb’s tone is friendly and humorous. This was a major
reason for the populari ty of his work. In ‘The Dream Children’ he
reminisces about his childhood and youthful love with the real people who
populated his life -his brother John and his grandmother, his sister Mary,
and Ann Simmons, who rejected him, but they are presented to the reader
in the guise of his great -grandmother, dead wife Alice, the children’s
uncle James and Bridget, the maid. This blending of the autobiographical
and the fictional makes the essays very personal and gives the reader a
glimpse of the sadness and regret that underlie his life. Although the
essays are filled with many characters it is Lamb’s personality which
stands out as memorable. In ‘Christ’s Hospital’ his shame and guilt at not
being able to share his special home cooked and tasty food with six
hundr ed students makes him more human to us. The last line in ‘The
Dream Children’ - “We are not of Alice, nor of thee, nor are we children
at all. The Children of Alice call Bartrum, father. We are nothing; less
than nothing, and dreams” (143) is filled with m elancholy. This essay is
also unique for the short story format it follows, with a proper beginning,
middle and twist in the tail ending. Dyson and Butt comment on Lamb’s
style: “His style is like himself, allusive, whimsical, remote, familiar and
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80 19th Century English Literature 9.5 CONCLUSION Lamb’s essays are a mirror into the personality of the man. His warmth of
spirit and friendly nature are visible in the humour with which he presents
his own flaws and opinions. The informal, conversational style of the
essays m ake them highly readable. He felt deeply the lack of a University
education - “I can here play the gentleman,
enact the student. To such a one as myself, who has been defrauded in his
young years of the sweet food of academic institution, nowhere is so
pleasant, to while away a few idle weeks”(17). His sadness at not being
able to attend Oxford as a students is expressed in his essay ‘Oxford in the
Vacation’. His favourite place to visit was Oxford, especially its libraries.
Lamb is not reluctant to share hi s feelings, thoughts, opinions or flaws
with his readers and this make his essays highly readable and personal.
9.6 QUESTIONS 1. Comment on the themes in the Essays of Elia.
2. Discuss the writing style of Charles Lamb in the Essays of Elia.
9.7 REFERENCES  Dyso n, H.D.V. and John Butt. Augustans and Romantics. The Cresset
Press, London. 1961.
 Erickson, Lee. “Charles Lamb on Romantic Reading and Social
Decorum.” The Wordsworth Circle, vol. 39, no. 3, 2008, pp. 79 –85,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/24045754.
 Khazoum, Violet. “The Novel and Characters in the Essays of Elia.”
Studies in English Literature, 1500 -1900, vol. 16, no. 4, 1976, pp.
563–77, https://doi.org/10.2307/450274. Accessed 24 A pr. 2022 .
 Lamb, Charles The Essays of Elia Thomas Nelson and Sons London.
1965.
 Randel, Fred V. “Eating and Drinking in Lamb’s Elia Essays.” ELH,
vol. 37, no. 1, 1970, pp. 57 –76, https://doi.org/10.2307/28722 74.
 Reading the Norton. Anthology of English Literature “Charles Lamb
‘Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading’”
https://readingnorton.wordpr ess.com/2019/11/03/charles -lamb -
detached -thoughts -on-books -and-reading/
 Woolf, Virginia. The Common Reader. Hogarth Press, London. 1925.
 History of English Literature ‘Personal Essays and Es sayists of the
Romantic Period’
https://www.literaturewise.in/mdl /mod/page/view.php?id=107
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81 Critical Study of Charles Lamb’s Essays of Elia Suggested Reading :
 Fukuda, Tsutomo. A Study of Charles Lamb’s Essays of Elia,
Hokuseido Press, 1964.
 Lamb, Charles. Essays of Elia edited by Hailward N.L.and Hill S.C.,
Macmillan Company of India Ltd.,1977.
 Poole Adrian. Great Sh akespeareans Lamb, Hazlitt, Keats
Bloomsbury, 2014.
 Randel, Fred V. The World of Elia: Charles Lamb’s Essayistic
Romanticism. Kennikat Press, 1975

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82 10
CRITICAL STUDY OF WILLIAM
HAZLITT’S
TABLE -TALK: ESSAYS ON MEN AND
MANNERS
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 On the Pleasure of Painting -Essay 1
10.3 Why Distant Objects Please
10.4 On Going a Journey
10.5 Conclusion
10.6 Quest ions
10.7 References
10.0 OBJECTIVES The aim of this unit is to introduce learners to the selected works of the
English essayist William Hazlitt. Hazlitt, along with Charles Lamb, is
regarded as the foremost personal essayists in English. The essays select ed
for study cover varied topics but are united by the author’s astute
observations, lucidity of expression and outspokenness. By the end of this
unit the students will learn to appreciate the themes and writing style of
Hazlitt.
10.1 INTRODUCTION William Hazlitt was born on April 10, 1778 in Maidstone, Kent. He grew
up in rural Wem, Shropshire and developed an interest in nature. In 1793
he joined a Unitarian academy at Hackney for training to join the ministry
but dropped out in 1796. After that he spent some years reading and
learning to paint. In 1798 he heard Coleridge speak in the Unitarian
Chapel and this proved to be a turning point in Hazlitt’s life. He met
Coleridge who advised him to study literature and through Coleridge he
met Wordsworth too. Th is meeting is the topic of the essay ‘My First
Acquaintance with the Poets’. The influence of both Romantic poets can
be seen in his essays.
Hazlitt was the author of many essays and pamphlets on political as well
as philosophical subjects: ‘An Essay on t he Principles of Human Action’
(1805), ‘Free Thoughts on Public Affairs’ (1806), ‘A Reply to the Essay
on Population’ (1807) and ‘A New and Improved Grammar of the English
Tongue’ (1810). In 1812 he began working for The Morning Chronicle
and in 1817 he be came drama critic for The Times. Characters of munotes.in

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83 Critical Study of William Hazlitt’s Table-Talk: Essays on Men and Manners Shakespeare’s Plays (1817) was dedicated to his friend Charles Lamb. His
essays began appearing regularly in The London Magazine, New Monthly
and The Liberal. Many of his best essays are collected in two volum es-
Table Talk (1821) and The Plain Speaker (1826). His Spirit of the Age
published in 1824 was a collection of the profiles of major writers of the
age like Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron and Lamb, who were his
contemporaries.
His personal life was unhappy, he married twice but both times it ended in
separation. He died on September 30, 1830.
10.2 ON THE PLEASURE OF PAINTING -ESSAY 1 Summary :
In the first essay “On the Pleasure of Painting,” Hazlitt compares the
pleasure of painting with the act of writing. A lthough both are art, their
goals are not the same. The purpose of writing is to struggle with the
world. In the act of painting the painter has ‘only to carry on a friendly
strife with Nature’ (164). But for a writer, writing is not just an act of
reveali ng what he observes in nature. His words have the inherent power
to challenge the world. According to him our ideas and thoughts cannot be
sufficiently expressed in words. ‘The ideas we cherish most, exist best in a
kind of shadowy abstraction’ (165). Pain ting on the other hand is a truly
creative activity. Having experience as a writer and painter, Hazlitt thinks
that painting is the more pleasurable activity. He tells us that when he
paints: “The hours pass away untold, without chagrin, and without
wearin ess; nor would you ever wish to pass them otherwise. Innocence is
joined with industry, pleasure with business; and the mind is satisfied,
though it is not engaged in thinking or in doing any mischief” (164).
Painting is also, not a sedentary activity. It requires continuous and steady
exertion of muscular power. If a person paints for a whole morning, he
develops an excellent appetite for dinner. The act of writing is not such a
pleasurable one because the search to express our ideas in words can
becoming difficult and frustrating. He ends the essay with a description of
his experience of painting the portrait of his father.
Analysis :
The measure Hazlitt applied to art was ‘gusto’ or passion defining any
object. His critique of the art of painting reveals h is belief in the creative
power of the individual genius. Art is produced by “individual and
incommunicable power” (32). These ideas place Hazlitt firmly among the
Romantic and personal essayists. He considers painting as a superior
activity as it is a syn thesizing activity. It requires a harmonious blending
of mind and body - “It is a mechanical as well as a liberal art” (170). Even
to contemplate a well -executed painting restores ones sense of harmony.
Each stroke of the brush leave traces of a unified se nsibility and the work
is to be viewed as a continuum, “who would ever wish to come to the end
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84 19th Century English Literature 10.3 WHY DISTANT OBJECTS PLEASE Summary :
What pleases the viewer about seeing distant objects is the awareness of
space and magnit ude. What lies between the observer and the view he
watches can only be guessed at as the imagination gets free rein to fill it
with adventures and hopes and wishes. Anything that is beyond the scope
of our sense and knowledge and is not seen perfectly is reconstructed by
our fancy. When we view a hill far away it tempts us to go closer but
when we do see it, the closer inspection is disappointing as it reveals only
lumps of discoloured earth. Hazlitt goes on to say that ‘the distance of
time has much the s ame effect as the distance of place’ (226). Man has the
tendency to fancy his future as good. It is only with the passage of time
and in retrospect he feels the ‘meanest incidents’ (226). However the
passing of time soothes the hurts of the past, even soft ens those
recollections. In youth we strive for adulthood, but in old age we look
back and yearn for our ‘thoughtless childhood’ (227).
He goes on to reminisce about his childhood visit to the Montpelier Tea
Gardens at Walworth with his father. Though he did not visit again the
memory of that visit is indelibly etched with brighter hues and glossier
beauty than it was.
Smells, sounds and tastes linger longer in our memory that objects that we
sight, including faces of people. ‘The sudden hearing of a well -known
voice is more affecting than the sudden sight of a face’ (144). The reason
for this is, according to Hazlitt, we see things constantly, but hear, feel and
smell only intermittently. These senses work upon our imagination just as
much as if not more than the sense of sight. Once on a walk in a rural road
near Salisbury Plain he heard the sudden peal of a church organ and it
struck him like the calm beauty of death.
Analysis :
This essay has the clearest enunciation of the Romantic credo. The
important role that the senses play in invoking our imagination to the
richness in nature and thoughts recollected in tranquillity remind us of
Wordsworth’s ideas enumerated in his Preface. Here, Hazlitt is lauding the
power of human imagination. What the eye canno t see our mind’s fancy
fills with something wonderful. Although he does not consider nature as a
deity, he acknowledges the importance of natural surroundings and
solitude in the development of individual thought.
10.4 ON GOING A JOURNEY Summary :
Accordin g to Hazlitt, the most pleasant thing in the world was going on a
journey alone. Amidst nature, he never felt alone. A friend accompanying
him on such a journey would be a disturbance as Hazlitt would then have
to talk and walk at the same time. He liked s olitude and to be with his own munotes.in

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85 Critical Study of William Hazlitt’s Table-Talk: Essays on Men and Manners thoughts. He needed only the clear, blue sky, the green turf, a winding
road and a three hour walk before dinner. He would be happy in such
surroundings. At such times, past memories would come crowding in and
he would begin reflecting on his past. Although Hazlitt liked puns,
alliteration, antithesis, argument and analysis, this was not the right
occasion for expressing them because he could feel the sweetness of the
rose, without any need to comment on it. When he was alone and in a
reverie, he did not like to have company. As Cobbett said, an Englishman
ought to do only one thing at a time. Sterne wanted a companion only to
remark on the beauty of the lengthening shadows. But Hazlitt preferred the
‘synthetical method on a jo urney, in preference to the analytical’ (81).
When he is traveling alone he gets immersed in the experience and ideas
float freely in his mind. Poets like Coleridge could do both: experience
deeply and also make others grasp the wholeness of that experienc e, which
Hazlitt is unable to.
The only kind of conversation one can have with a companion on a
journey is about what he would like to eat for dinner at the end of the
walk. An outdoor conversation like this serves to improve the appetite and
every mile h e walks intensifies the anticipation. As night approaches it is
pleasant to enter a village inn and rest there. Such moments are not meant
for sharing with others. If companionship is forced upon him, he would
much rather speak to a complete stranger as t hat person would be of that
place and time only and would be ignorant of Hazlitt and he could easily
forget himself. In an inn Hazlitt would be known just as the gentleman in
the parlour, he could easily lose his identity there. Hazlitt reminisces about
all the good books he spent reading at inns.
Travel reveals the capriciousness of our imagination: we change our ideas
and thoughts when we travel. Our perceptions are enlarged and there is a
shift in our point of view. As we approach the familiar inn our p ast
associations, feelings and circumstances come rushing back and we are
able to forget the world.
The mind registers what the eyes see so it is impossible to think of a
cultivated piece of land when one is traveling through barren deserts. Sir
Fopling Flutter’s statement ‘Beyond Hyde Park all is a desert’ becomes
relevant in this sense. When one is in the town, one cannot visualize the
countryside and the mind believes that there is no world beyond that seen
by the eyes. China, with its physical territo ry and population, means
nothing more than a name on a map or inches of pasteboard on a globe.
Things that nearby appear life -size while things at a distance are
diminished to the size of the understanding.
Hazlitt makes certain exceptions to his rule for solitary journeys: he likes
having company while visiting places of historical interest, aqueducts,
pictures, because the sentiments aroused by these are communicable and
overt, not tacit. On a pleasure trip the discussions usually center around
what pla ces to visit but on a lonely walk one wonders what one might see
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86 19th Century English Literature While traveling abroad he shares with his fellow countrymen the feeling
of antipathy towards foreign ideas and manners, and needs the assistance
of social sympathy to carry it of f. Also, he likes to hear the sound of his
own language when he is far away from his own country. The only
exception to this was his visit to France. He felt at home there. But with
Napoleon dead the country was left with the Bourbons and the French
people under them. The glory had fled France. There is no doubt immense
pleasure in foreign travel but they are not lasting. It cannot be associated
with one’s daily life because of their foreign nature and so remain like a
dream. Dr. Johnson said that a person who travels abroad was not
necessarily a better conversationalist than one who had never travelled
beyond the borders of his own country. But it has to be said that travel
alters a person. It is a joyful and at the same time instructive experience.
Analysi s:
Although this essay is about walking, it enunciates a philosophy: walking
is an exercise for the mind as well as for the body. It allows one to think,
remember and imagine. The relationship between nature and the observer
is being celebrated in this ess ay. William Wordsworth, the Romantic poet,
with his sister Dorothy used to take long walks in the countryside and this
influenced their sensibilities and their writing. “I wandered lonely as a
cloud”, this line from Wordsworth’s most famous poem can be app lied to
Hazlitt’s love for walking alone.
Analysis of style :
Hazlitt is an intensely personal essayist, much of what he writes is
autobiographical. He was not a believer in following rules and formalities
and set down his opinions without fear. He was a m an of deep feeling and
independent thinking. The single idea which can be called a personal
philosophy is enunciated in his concept of ‘gusto’. “Gusto in art is power
or passion defining any object.” (1) He goes on to observe that all objects
contain “some character of power … some precise association with
pleasure or pain: and it is in giving this truth of character from the truth of
feeling, whether in the highest or the lowest degree, but always in the
highest degree of which the subject is capable, that gusto consists”(1). He
spoke about gusto in relation to painting first, and then applied it to
sculpture, art and drama: Michael Angelo, Titian and Shakespeare are
mentioned in the essay ‘On Gusto’. Here, Hazlitt is referring to the
inherent qualities of an object and the manner in which the artist perceives
and reproduces them. This concept is similar to Wordsworth idea of
passion and truth of feeling. Hazlitt was influenced by the Elizabethan and
Restoration writers and dramatists as well as his contempo raries like
Coleridge and Wordsworth. His writing style is conversational rather than
literary and since he uses common words to express his ideas his essays
are highly readable.

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87 Critical Study of William Hazlitt’s Table-Talk: Essays on Men and Manners 10.5 CONCLUSION Hazlitt’s essays have a rich variety because of his intere st in painting, art,
literature, philosophy and travel. He was a political commentator, an
admirer of Napoleon, a critic, philosopher and a well -read and erudite
man. He had a wide social circle, yet he was a quarrelsome man and made
enemies of friends. In his essay ‘On Genius and Common Sense’, he
writes a fine estimate of Wordsworth. His solitary rambles and the insight
he gained during his walks revealed in the essays speak of his profound
wisdom and fertile imagination. There is logic, energy and emotio n in his
writing.
10.6 QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the themes in Hazlitt’s essays prescribed for study.
2. Analyse the Romantic elements in Hazlitt’s essays.
3. Comment on the pastoral elements in Hazlitt’s essays.
10.7 REFERENCES  Bryson, Norman. “Hazlitt on Painting.” The Journal of Aesthetics and
Art Criticism, vol. 37, no. 1, 1978, pp. 37 –45,
https://doi.org/10.2307/430874 .
 Folliot, Laurent. ‘“Without the power to stir, without any
determination to stay”: Will iam Hazlitt as uneasy Spectator’. Dans
Études anglaises 2013/1 (Vol. 66), pages 55 -71.
https://www.cairn.info/revue -etudes -anglaises -2013 -1-page -
55.htm#re1no1
 Hazlitt, William. ‘On Gusto’ 1816 from Geoffrey Keynes’. Selected
Essays of William Hazlitt: 1778 to 1830. Read Books Ltd., 2013.
 Hazlitt, William Selected Essays ed. P.S. Shastri, Doaba House Delhi,
1972
 Salvesen, Christopher G. “The True Jacobin: Pastoral and Politics in a
Hazlitt Essay.” Angol Filológiai Tanulmányok / Hungarian Studies in
English, vol. 20, 1989, pp. 67 –76,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/41273828
 Wordsworth, William. ‘Daffodils’. Poem hunter
Suggested Reading
 Grayling, A.C. The Quarrel of the Age: the Life and Times of
William Hazlitt Orion. 2000.
 Hazlitt, William. Table -Talk: Essays on Men and Manners, Anodos
Books, 2017 munotes.in

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88 19th Century English Literature  Houck, James A. William Hazlitt: A Reference Guide. G.K. Hall,
1977, 2013.
 Keynes, Geoffrey. Selected Essays of William Hazlitt: 1778 to 1830.
Read Books Ltd., 2013.
 Whelan, Maurice. In the Company of William Hazlitt: T houghts for
the 21st Century. Merlin Press, 2005.
 Wu, Duncan. William Hazlitt the First Modern Man. OUP. 2010.


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