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CIVIL SOCIETY AND
DEMOCRATIC PROCESS
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Civil Society as Site of Contestation
1.3 Mapping Civil Society
1.4 Uncivil Society
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 References
1.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
1.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarise you with the idea of civil society as a
site of contestation in a democracy. It will also make you understand the
interactions taking place between democracy and civil society in
contemporary world. We will also try to look at the uncivil aspects of civil
society. After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the idea of civil society and its role in a democracy
• Explicate thei r changing nature and the interrelationship between
these two ideas
• Discuss their civil and uncivil nature in the contemporary times
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we shall expand our understanding of idea of civil society and
its nature and role in a democ racy. Civil society is a very elusive and multi -
layered concept. In common understanding it is perceived as a space that
exist between the state and the people or community. It comprises of the
autonomous institutions that curtails the powers of the state. This space acts
to not only act as a check on the powers of the state but also on the other
hand empower people against a state that may be authoritarian or autocratic.
It is a conduit to channelize and mobilise peoples’ energies and
expectations. The res istance movements in different parts of the world
particularly in Latin America, Africa and in communist countries paved
way for a revival of civil society organisations in the form of women’s
organisations, students’ organisations, worker’s unions or popu lar activism munotes.in
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2 Civil Society and Democracy
2 against various kinds of tyrannical regimes. This resurgence of civil society
also facilitated the spread and consolidation of democracy across the world.
Today democracy is unthinkable without the active participation of the
space called civi l society. In fact the nature and level of civil society
activism and participation is one of the indicator of the health of any
democracy today. However civil society is not be considered as an
alternative to the idea of state.
In the ancient Greek city s tate the civil and political were two distinct arenas
and this is considered as the oldest reference to a very different form and
nature of civil society. The roots of concept of civil society can be also be
traced as back in the writings of Cicero as well as work of Roman
Philosophers. The 16th, 17th and 18th century enlightenment contributed to
the development of idea of modern notion of civil society as an independent
site away from the state which acted to mobilise citizenry around their
common interests and issues. The emergence of the concept of modern
states contributed greatly to the shaping of civil society and has been
discussed in different ways in the work of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.
Hobbesian social contract theory creates jointly a civil and political society
under the reign of a Leviathan. Lock e’s conception of state was a limited
state and thus made a strong case for preservation and protection of rights
of people against the excesses of the state. According to Gurpreet Mahajan
in the Lockean state the civil society is distinct from political s ociety by
prioritising the safeguarding of individual rights. Rousseau’s’ analysis of
state of nature and conceptualisation of the modern state explains that the
human instinct of Amore Propre (Self -love and desire) eventually has led to
the constriction o f the idea of civil liberties and protection of these liberties
through civil society. In Hegel’s work civil society is painted as a necessary
stage in the evolution of state where as Tocqueville sees civil society as a
limiting force on the powers of the state in a democracy. On the other hand,
Karl Marx critiqued civil society as a very site of the power of bourgeois
state. Gramsci challenged the traditional Marxist analysis and developed a
very different analysis of civil society. In his work civil soci ety represents
the soft power of the state which also actively acts to manufacture consent
for the state power through ideological domination and cultural
indoctrination. For him hegemony of the dominant class is achieved through
active participation of or ganisations that occupy the civil society space. In
recent times in the works of David Held civil society is defined using
sociological lens. In the writings of Jurgen Habermas idea of public sphere
also seeks to explain the active role of civil society. I n the post -cold war
world and particularly since the onset of liberalisation, globalisation and
privatisation the idea of civil society has received renewed attention and is
also promoted by the international financial institutions such as IMF and
WB as a space between market and the state. This space acts to absorb the
shocks of the free -market economy and also is seen as a space to ventilate
the grievances of the common people. Post -modern political theorisation
has opened new avenues of defining the civi l society as a site for the people,
by the people and of the people away from the state in a democracy. Various
philosophical and theoretical discussions are abounded today about whether
civil society is obsolete or is still of relevance in contemporary ti mes, munotes.in
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3 Civil Society and Democratic Process whether it is a site of promoting freedom of expression, solidarity and
fraternity or it is growing into a space of uncivil activities that create
disturbances for the democratic process. It should be also highlighted that
civil society is inextricabl y a western intellectual construction hence is also
invariably associated with ideas such as democracy, constitutionalism, and
rule of law, capitalism, urbanisation and end of monarchy. Despite all these
speculations about the role and relevance of civil society it is indeed
important to understand the idea of civil society and its role and relevance
in democratic process. It is matter of discussion and perspective whether
civil society is merely an arena of contestation and struggle or a site of
mitigatio n and manoeuvrings.
1.2 CIVIL SOCIETY AS SIT E OF CONTESTATION
Democracy today is celebrated as one of the most successful political
systems that practically doesn’t have any competition. Its rudimentary
meaning implies a form of government in which decisi on-making is by the
people, for the people and of the people. Nonetheless, there are myriad
forms and types of democracy. Liberal Democracy is particularly
considered as a product and characteristic feature of modernity. It came into
existence as a result of civil war against royal absolutism and paved the way
for the transfer of powers from the Crown to the
Parliament. Since then, liberal democracy has expanded not only in physical
terms but also has matured in terms of meaning ascribed to it. The American
and French Revolutions coupled with the growth of industrial capitalism
since the late 18th century has deepened the roots of democracy. (Joshi,
IGNOU)
Civil society is a space that guarantees individual’s freedom from all forms
of violence and various ki nds of incivilities (Keane, 2004). It represents the
claims of groups and individuals against the state within the boundaries of
law. Civil society gives voice to many identities as well as ideas that may
otherwise be crushed and brushed under the carpet. Especially in a
democratic set -up it is fundamentally important that active civil society
organisation stand to protect and preserve the freedom of expression and
communication of the common people. There were obviously doubts raised
about the role and rel evance of civil society in the backdrop of rise of fascist
regimes, totalitarianism, dictatorships in different parts of the world, wars
or state dirigisme which resulted due to the overreach of the state (look at
Chondhoke’s work). However, in the last tw o to three decades what has
observed (see Keane’s Work) that for the first -time democracy and civil
society are emerging as inseparable from each other. Their political
language converges and at the same time contradicts each other. Democracy
as a special kind of political system and life is unthinkable without the space
for civil society. They both are seen as interdependent and contiguous.
Democracy and civil society have come to create a system where in
governments or political representatives are now su bjected to public
surveillance, bargain and compromises. The classical understanding of
democracy as merely a system of periodic elections, majority rule and rule munotes.in
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4 of law is becoming obsolete. The growing number of different types of civil
society outfits a nd their active functioning signals that civic activism and
civic participation in democratic process has fond a new language in the
form of civil society. The length and breadth of the issues these civil society
organisations cover is also phenomenal. Tod ay civil society has proved to
be a strong theoretical weapon against dictatorial regimes. States thrive on
legitimacy and to secure legitimacy any state or regime has to also have to
withstand the questions and challenges posed by civil society. Civil soc iety
today stands for promoting plurality, co -existence, tolerance and
associational life which has become a global mantra today.
Civil society can be understood through three distinctive approaches. The
Anglo - American approach takes cues from the work o f Tocqueville. Civil
society in this approach is seen as an intermediate layer between people and
state institutions. The communication gap that representative democracy
generates between the state, institutions, their decision -making bodies on
one hand and citizens on the other hand is abridged by civil society. The
relatively powerless and voice less public is empowered through the
medium of civil society. This increases the people’s power of negotiations
and bargaining. The civil society becomes the co nduit to channelize
peoples’ aspirations and interests. It increases the collective power of the
people in a democracy and protects them from state excesses.
There is also an approach which traces the meaning of civil society gaining
currency in the back drop of citizens rising against the totalitarian and fascist
communist regimes in Eastern Europe. The outburst against the
authoritarian states in Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union or revolt
against military dictatorship in Latin America, Philippines and South Africa
stood to define the power of collective forces of individuals. These
movements primarily were interested in advancing the project of democracy
in these undemocratic conditions. Their aim was to secure and increase the
fundamental freedoms and liberties for their citizens. Thus, civil society
became a theoretical formulation that stood for championing and advancing
the process of democratisation of political structures and systems.
Finally, the last approach sees the roots of civil societ y in the growing
universal spread of free market economy and western paradigm of
economic development. The role, remit and relevance of state as a
domineering institution began to be questioned. The liberal economic set -
up represented by unimaginable power of transnational corporations
required to be checkmated by the role of non -state actors as the state
gradually began to lose its foothold in the democratic process.
The role of civil society organisation has been increasingly recognised in
the democrat ic process. They today play an important role in policy
formulation, provide technical expertise, represent the voice and choice of
the masses, and exert pressure on government agencies. They are key to
increasing people’s participation thus contributing t o substantive
democracy. The civil society also is a key medium to impart civic education
and creation of political culture. The leadership role that civil society play
is crucial for they train the young people and engage them in the public life. munotes.in
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5 Civil Society and Democratic Process In a way it also aids in shaking people from their slumber in politically
apathetic environment. In conservative and dictatorial societies traditional
types of civil society such as religious organisations or cultural associations
overtake the role of non -governme ntal organisations. Larry Diamond in his
article, ‘Rethinking Civil Society’, says, “Civil society plays a significant
role in building and consolidating democracy.” He opines: “The democratic
civil society…the more likely it is that democracy will emerge and endure.
Today effective and efficient role of civil society ensure that congenial
conditions for democracy can be created and consolidated. This is possible
as civil society play an important role in political education, ensuring
accountability and tra nsparency of government agencies, building the
ground for legitimacy. Though role of civil society is well appreciated today
across the globe its functioning can also act to disrupt the smooth
functioning of the democratic process. These uncivil aspects of civil society
shall be discussed in the subsection 1.4.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer
1) Discuss the historical moorings of civil society.
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1.3 MAPPING CIVIL SOCIET Y
The growing significance of civil society has invited both lot of aspirational
politics as well as has created confusion for the defining boundaries of what
constitutes civil society. In order t o avoid conceptual ambiguity about the
meaning, definition and types of civil society, it is necessary to correctly
map civil society in any given context. That civil society stands for common
interests and is contiguous with democratic process is widely a ccepted
understanding today. A clear mapping of civil society guides us to
explicate which types of organisations are termed as civil society and how
people associate with them.
In present times there is lot of excitement to consider civil society in it s
avatar as non -governmental organisation. These are primarily advocacy
groups which are working towards public interest and causes. They pursue
issues of environment, human rights, gender issues, anti -corruption etc.
These kinds of groups have come to pro minence especially in those parts of
the world where rapid democratic transitions are taking place. Nonetheless
it is wrong to reduce civil society to merely non -government organisations.
Civil society is a much broader concept and encompasses many other f orms
of organisations that operate outside the state Thus it also includes political
parties and the market -oriented organisations and a array of other munotes.in
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6 associations. Civil society is also termed as interest groups or pressure
groups in political theory. Ot her than non -governmental organisations,
labour unions, professional associations, chambers of commerce, students’
unions, religious organisations and ethnic associations also can be
considered as part of civil society. The list is very vast and includes a ll those
organisations that are aimed at advancing the special interests of people.
In the following discussion we aim to understand civil society in the form
of an association. Humans are considered as social animals and they are
known to associate themselves with other human being for pursuing their
common interests. Most of the modern constitutions all over the world today
recognise right to form associations as a fundamental right. Scholars have
argued that has argued that associations enable indi viduals to pursue their
own freedom not only individually but also collectively. In addition,
associations are based on volition and principle of respect for individual
freedom. However, a strict application of this criterion to understand the
forms and t ypes of civil society organisation can give us a limited
understanding. Therefore, following discussion may also include some
types which are not fully an association and may fall into the category of
hybrid types. Within the broad definition of an organi sation for collective
initiatives and pursuance of common good associational type civil society
will be discussed here.
Civil Society Mapping – Association Types
1. Traditional Associations - The social units such as tribe, ethnicity or
caste is the basis of these types of civil society organisations.
Primarily they mediate in inter - family relations. They also have
specific norms and procedures to protect and govern natural
resources. With the expansion of modern state legitimacy of such civil
society asso ciations have been on the decline due to decreasing
resource base, rise of capitalism and forces of modernisation. A
number of struggles for the protection of traditional rights of tribals
over natural resources have been led by such associations in variou s
parts of India.
2. Religious Associations - Some organisations have a clear religious or
spiritual motivation and mandate. Various types of human welfare
activities such as healthcare, education and water provision etc. are
carried out by these organisati ons purely on religious basis.
3. Social Movements - There are associations which are driven by social
causes such as organising around issues of tribal people, fight against
social evils or evil practices, fighting for the concerns of the displaced
poor or marginalised sections of the society or rallying for the cause
of environment etc. The diversity, length and breadth of such
associations is huge in our society.
4. Membership Association - In modern societies today most of the
civil society organisations follow the pattern of admitting members
through formal membership which also comes with some contribution
from the members. The degree of formality and exclusivity is munotes.in
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7 Civil Society and Democratic Process different in each organisation. There are various types of membership
civil society assoc iations such as Representational Associations,
Socio -Cultural Associations, Professional Association or Self -Help
Groups.
5. Intermediary Association – On the basis of the broader causes that
organisations pursue and canvas of the organisation they can be
termed as intermediary associations. They may not fight for specific
issues but lend support and guidance to multiple issues and causes.
They act as an intermediary between formal government institutions
and people. They provide functional support in the f orm of advocacy,
service delivery, philanthropy, mobilisation, networking etc.
The above classification of associational types of civil society is not
a neat and complete map of civil society though. Due to the diversity
and complexity of the isssues arou nd which civil society is formed it
is difficult to bracket and label civil into strict and clear
compartments. The above discussion clearly omits the discussion on
individual initiatives but it is helpful in understanding a general
mapping of associationa l civil society.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Do a civil society mapping for India
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1.4 UNCIVIL SOCIETY
The term “civil society” is a convoluted idea and can mean many things to
many people in multiple contexts. Rumford maintains that, “ Uncivil
society" is a catch -all term for a wide range of di sruptive, unwelcome and
threatening elements deemed to have emerged in the spaces between the
individual and the state, and which have become increasingly difficult to
control and regulate, particularly when they extend across national borders.
In contempo rary discourse, examples of "uncivil society" range from child
pornography, right -wing extremism and anti -globalization protestors, to the
general lack of social consensus and civic values which many believe
characterize contemporary western societies. Wha t they have in common is
the threat that they are perceived to represent to the proper order of society
and the common good. Similarly, there are those for whom the advent of
the "information society" represents "uncivil society" and constitutes both
an op portunity and a threat. (Rumford, 2001) The networks of terrorism, munotes.in
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8 drug trafficking and organized crime are all forces of "uncivil society"
engendered by globalization. It is important to underscore that the forces
that contributed to global civil society have also facilitated the trans
nationalization of "uncivil" elements. Scholars have argued that uncivil
society and dark side of globalisation are just the two sides of the same coin.
The unrelenting growth of cross -border illegal activities such as drug
trafficking, human trafficking, organised crime, cross border terrorism
threatens the institutions of the State and civil society in many countries.
They have support of global networks and funding to meet their ends.
Uncivil society still remains a highl y under theorised concept. The
wholesale imposition of western notions of civil society on non -western
societies also have crated lot of confusion about what constitutes civil and
uncivil in civil society. To believe that civil society always is about
eman cipatory politics, collective action or struggle that aids the democratic
process is very euro centric explanation. Civil society can equally be a vocal
and active site of conflicts and contestations that brings disturbances and
disenchantments in a democr acy especially when the site is used for the
fight against non -traditional issues in any society. It is very well accepted
that dissent and resistance is the key to substantive democracy but
sometimes this very dissent and resistance can also challenge and subvert
the democratic ideals if they are exclusive. To brand such kind of politics
as unhealthy or uncivil in our plural and diverse world is problematic. For
instance, for scholars who are pro -market and liberal economy have
consistently painted demonst ration and struggle against big dams or
development projects or genetic modifications as uncivil in nature. Certain
conservative theorists have also criticised gay rights movements as a
disturbance to an established social order. On the other hand, few glo bal
justice activists consider the ‘Uncivil Society’ as riveting and a site of
struggle to challenge the status quo. In general, in the academic explanations
uncivil society is defined as anything that subverts the liberal democratic
(read western liberal democratic) ideals and values. Exclusivist practices,
dogmatic politics, general rule breaking or violence -based activities are
considered as uncivil in nature. It is important to ask a question that to brand
such activities as uncivil emanates from a very western centric approach to
understand civil society is also highly profiting to the mutually admiring
duo of civil society and liberal democracy. It is also poignant to note that
there is also a relation between growing influence of global capitalism and
rise of uncivil society in different forms in different contexts. The uncivil
forms of civil society are spread across the globe in Africa, Eastern Europe,
West Europe, Asia etc. Nonetheless the trajectory of what is uncivil society
is still a less explor ed and theorised path and multiple explanations are being
added to this aspect of civil society in contemporary times.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer. munotes.in
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9 Civil Society and Democratic Process 1) Explain the uncivil society.
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1.5 LET US SUM UP
In this module we discussed the meaning, nature, role and relevance of civil
society in a democracy. The civil society as a site of contestation or politics
of common good was highlighted. We also discussed the historical
moorings of the concept of civil society beginning from the Greek
philosophers to roman scholars and theorists from the enlightenment era.
The modern avatar of civil society in the context of liberal democracy was
also discussed at length. In this module we also tried to map the civil society
using the lens of associational type of civil society. Finally a new and less
theorised idea of uncivil society is discussed. Th e rise of global capitalism
and uncivil society has strong links is a general consensus among many
scholars. On the other hand some also believe that uncivil society is a
western construct. There is also a string understanding among few others
that uncivil society also stands for challenge to the status quo.
1.6 REFERENCES
Chandhoke, N. (2007). Civil society. Development in Practice , 17(4-5),
607-614.
Chandhoke, N. (2012). Whatever has happened to civil society? Economic
and Political Weekly , 39-45.
Diamond , L. (1994). Rethinking civil society: Toward democratic
consolidation. Journal of democracy, 5(3), 4 -17.
Glasius, M. (2010). Uncivil society. International encyclopedia of civil
society , 1583 -1588.
Joshi, S. (2021). Capitalism and Idea of Liberal democrac y. IGNOU Course
Material (https://egyankosh.ac.in/handle/123456789/71803)
Kaviraj, S., & Khilnani, S. (Eds.). (2001). Civil society: history and
possibilities . Cambridge University Press.
Keane, J. (2009). Civil society, definitions and approaches. Interna tional
encyclopedia of civil society, 461 -464. munotes.in
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10 Mahajan, G. (1999). Civil Society and Its Avtars: What Happened to
Freedom and Democracy?. Economic and political weekly , 1188 -1196.
Rumford, C. (2001). Confronting ‘uncivil society’and the ‘dark side of
globa lization’: Are sociological concepts up to the task?. Sociological
Research Online , 6(3), 101 -104.
1.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOU R PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Your answer should highlight following points
• Define Civil Society
• Evolution of civil society since the time of Greek Philosophers
• Growth of civil society in modern times
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Your answer should answer following questions.
• What are the different types of civil society associations in
India?
• What are the key areas of function of such Associations?
• Discuss with examples
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Your answer should highlight following points
• Definitions of Uncivil society
• Is there a link between globalization and uncivil society?
• Different types of uncivil society
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CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATION
AND THE STATE
Unit Structure
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Introduction: Civil Society Organisation and the State
2.3 Service Delivery
2.4 Watchdog
2.5 Co-optation
2.6 Summary
2.7 Exercise
2.8 References
2.1 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to familiarize you with the vast array of roles civil
society organizations perform and how they are indispensable for the
creation of a democratic state.
• Understand the role of civil society organisations in the policy process
• Understand the relationship between civil society organizations and
the state in the attainment of development goals
• Understand the role of civil society in assisting the state in t he delivery
of services
• Understand the role of civil society in acting as a watchdog and
checking the misuse of power and excesses of power by the state
• Understand how civil society contributes to the decision -making
process through co -optation
2.2 INTROD UCTION
Civil Society , according to Britannica is a dense network of
groups, communities, networks, and ties that stand between the individual
and the modern state. World Bank defines “Civil society as ‘a wide array
of organizations: community groups, non -governmental organizations
[NGOs], labour unions, indigenous groups, charitable organizations, faith -
based organizations, professional associations, and foundations.’ Civil
society is also considered the third sector after government and commerce
which has the power to influence the actions of elected policy -makers and
businesses. munotes.in
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12 Civil society organizations (CSOs) share a symbiotic relationship with the
state and play a critical role in the attainment of sustainable development
roles. Their role as a watch dog of the state, as a service provider for the
citizens, and as co -partners in the development of society is crucial. This
can be understood by studying in detail the different ways in which CSOs
influence governance and policy making. Civil society organizations can
provide a ready pool of volunteers and resources that the government can
tap into. Issues of inclusion -exclusion error can be addressed
through verification by independent teams of volunteers. CSOs and NGOs
can act as an effective link betwee n people’s aspirations and governance. It
can play the role of effectively communicating the needs of people to the
government. For example, PM Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyan was launched
in response to Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan’s petitioning for distrib ute
food grains to everyone. (Drishti IAS)
The role of Civil society grew in the countries of the former USSR during
the process of democratic transition in Eastern Europe. Robert Putnam in
1993 highlighted the role of civil society in the northern and So uthern
regions of modern Italy. He and his colleagues conducted investigations
between 1979 and 1989. He discovered that strong civil society associations
in the northern region as the reason for effective government.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina Civil societ y couldn’t succeed in peacebuilding
and development due to a lack of support. The reasons cited are poor donor
capacity -building strategies and financial vacuum, lack of sustained
regional planning etc.
Civil society can play an effective role in the demo cratization process. It
can provide linkage between democracy, environmental issues, people, and
the state. According to UNDP (1993) ‘civil society is together with the state
and market, one of the three spheres in the interface in the making of
democratic societies. Civil society is the sphere in which social movements
became organized.
2.3 SERVICE DELIVERY
The role of civil society organizations has doubled in the last few years in
both developed and industrialized countries. The Asian development bank
(ADB) describes its functions of ADB as multifaceted.
Some of the service delivery functions are:
• Complement government poverty alleviation programs with
community -based assistance tailored for specific communities,
empowering women and the marginalized.
• During lockdown in March 2020 novel corona pandemic, Prime
Minister Narendra Modi called on CSOs to help the government in
providing basic necessities to the underprivileged, supplying medical
and protective gear, and assisting with awareness campaigns on soc ial
distancing. (Marwaha,2021) A number of CSOs, voluntary munotes.in
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13 Civil Society Organisation and the State groups distributed food, ration and vegetables for the homeless and
the migrants.
• During the same period the NITI Aayog reached out to more than
90,000 NGOs and civil society organisations (CSO) t hat assisted in
delivering services to the poor as well as health and community
workers.
• The role played by NGOs was also important in providing migrant
workers assistance in food, water and transport during the difficult
time.
• The Danish Refugee council D RC, provides assistance to refugees,
displaced people and their host communities in conflict zones around
the world. (DRC)
• In large areas of developing countries world, civil society work with
the state in welfare programs for the poor.
• Civil society orga nizations (CSOs) have an important role to play in
the delivery of essential services of which foremost is their role in
health services. Some of the services provided in developing countries
by CSOs are distributing health resources like bed nets, cemen t for
toilets, financial health services, disseminating health information etc.
(WHO,2001)
• Participation of CSOs in the Swachha Bharat Mission in India has
contributed to its success. Creating awareness as role of Swaccha
grahis has a made visible impact in changing the behaviour of people
to stop open defecation practices in rural areas. As a service provider,
they have assisted in providing education, for example, running
primary schools and adult education.
• Their contribution is notable in the conservat ion of nature and
biodiversity which are quite essential for a healthy, clean and
biologically sound India.
• The importance of Civil society organizations in health care systems
is significant if we examine the case study of Sub -Saharan Africa and
other dev eloping nations.
Case Study of Sub -Saharan Africa
Kanya Clovice,kandinda Annah and Rwabukwali B. Charles (2013),
undertake a case study of sub -Saharan Africa in Kabarole district (Uganda)
between the months of January to March 2013. Through a cross sectio nal
survey design that collected data using quantitative and qualitative
approaches. The study design involved collecting data at defined time when
the researcher recorded the information present at the CSOs involved in
health care delivery in relation to children immunisation in Kabarole district
population. The questionnaire survey involved 282 household participants.
Data were analysed using descriptive statistics followed by multivariable munotes.in
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14 logistic regression. Results (97%) confirmed that CSOs and NGOs p layed
a major role in healthcare service delivery including child immunization
services. Also, the socioeconomic status of communities determines the
affordability of the community and accessibility to CSOs healthcare centres.
At global level and in some c ountries, working with civil society has
become an established mechanism of health governance and governance for
health. But many government -Civil Society Organization (CSO)
collaborations are ‘out of sync’. Representation does not fit, the governance
of the relationship is often poor, the finance is inadequate, there are tensions
between the public sector and the CSO, and administrative procedures are
poorly harmonized (Buse & Harmer, 2007). Extolling civil society, or
relying on it, is well and good, but creating a fruitful partnership presents a
series of practical challenges.
Hence CSOs play an important role on health care delivery. Other notable
points were that community socioeconomic factors and geographical
locations of the CSOs health care strongly determine the operation and role
of CSOs in health care services delivery.
2.4 WATCH -DOG
As a watch Dog CSOs have helped in protecting the rights of the minority,
depressed class along with individual rights of freedom, liberty is protected
duly by civi l society. Further, civil society has a great role in stopping the
majoritarian tendencies and protecting the spirit of diversity in India.
The civil society movements like the Chipko, Apiko movements of the past
for the protection of tree to the present day Aravali Bachao and Narmada
Bachao Abhiyan try to achieve a similar objective in sync with the idea of
new India. civil society organisations have found creative ways to criticize
their governments’ policies and strategies during the crisis and, in many
countries, CSOs and individuals have organized to provide information,
food and basic necessities to those most in need.
CSOs act as a WATCH -DOG in the following ways:
• advocate/campaigner (for example, lobbying governments or
business on issues including indigenous rights or the environment)
• watchdog (for example, monitoring government compliance with
human rights treaties)
• building active citizenship (for example, motivating civic engagement
at the local level and engagement with local, regional and natio nal
governance) participating in global governance processes (for
example, civil society organisations serve on the advisory board of
the World Bank’s Climate Investment Funds).
• To create a civil society -driven monitoring and evaluation system of
minority rights, specifically pertaining to local government. munotes.in
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15 Civil Society Organisation and the State • To strengthen civil society’s capacities to monitor, evaluate and
advocate for minority rights obligations.
• Civil society organizations track government expenditures using
different tracking tools to ens ure that money allocated is used for their
intended purposes. Again, the study identified that civil society
organizations followed up on the Auditor General’s report and work
to ensure that their reports bring changes in the public financial
management pr ocess
Oluajo elaborates in detail on the role of civil society as a watchdog.
According to Oluajo, Civil society is considered an important mechanism
of public oversight and accountability of government and state institutions.
Many CSOs like human rights N GOs think tanks and research groups play
an important role in this. CSOs have constituencies from which they derive
power, money, and legitimacy, hence they need to elaborate these
mechanisms of public accountability. This should ensure accountability to
the poor as well and not merely to donors and the owners. This is very much
needed for CSOs to increase their representation and their legitimacy.
Among the many roles of Civil society organizations in promoting public
accountability, includes: -
• setting agenda for the public and the government with regard to public
policies,
• involvement in development policy formulation and implementation
• Mobilisation of social resources
• Demand for transparency
• International representation of local interests
• Monitoring t he evaluation of public policies with a view to bring
reforms in public policies.
2.5 CO -OPTATION
Co-optation is a process of absorbing challenging elements into established
decision -making structures, thus averting threats to an organisation’s goals.
(Selznick,1949) Hence by the term co -optation in simple language, we
mean direct political participati on and inclusion of the CSOs in the
governance process. Co -optation extends across a range of interactions
between civil society organizations and political and business actors.
Co-optation can also have negative consequences. It can be used as a
strategy by the powerful actors to influence the CSOs and dilute the
opposition by incorporating the members into the legitimate negotiation
process. Lorch and Bunk (2017) provided an overview of how states may
use CSOs for legitimate authoritarian rule. In simila r manner CSOs in
Ethiopia navigate civic space by working on their individual position with
state actors. For e.g., they seek to enhance their autonomy by building
strong relations with state actors who can help ease state control. These are munotes.in
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16 Civil Society and Democracy
16 challenges for the working of civil society who are working in constricted
spaces.
Case Studies
If we study the example of India, we can see CSO’s collaborations in
disaster governance. CSOS has helped in disaster governance in both
Gujarat and Bihar. Reetika Syal, Margin van Wessel and Sarbeswar Sahoo
(2021) in ‘Collaboration, Co -optation or Navigation? The Role of Civil
Society in Disaster Governance in India highlights the collaboration of
CSOs in India with some examples. They identified the following role of
CSO s in India:
1. Problem Solvers that offered technical knowledge and resolutions to
local -level issues with innovative strategies
2. Translators in local languages and intermediaries between the
government and the people
3. Implementing agencies of State
For example, in Gujarat, a long chain of command is there down to the
district level. Each district has its own DMP (District Management
Programme) and District Project Officer, working under the SDMA (State
Disaster Management Authority).
CSOs engagement ta kes place at the local level only. There are some formal
collaborations between the CSOs and the Gujarat Institute of Disaster
Management wherein CSOs are undertaking research projects.
In Bihar, we see variable and ad hoc engagement with CSOs where the la tter
was a stakeholder in the disaster management process. CSOs function was
relevant in providing functional inputs.
Along with collaboration, there is some space for CSOs to bring their own
agendas through the state’s agenda leading in such a role.
Gener ally, state -civil society synergy is a powerful driving force for
economic change. Only a proper blend of public policies and civil society
engagement with political participation ensures efficient implementation of
reforms. (Kalinowski,2008). A strong and reliable civil society organization
can represent the interest of the people and the community and serve as a
check on the powers of the government through political participation. Civil
society organizations can also supplement the role of political part ies in
encouraging the people to participate in politics. Civil society organizations
can also help train future political leaders, publicize programs, reconcile
conflicts and build alliances. (Bunbongkarn,2001) The role of CSOs as a
partner with the gover nment helps the policy -making process and planned
development. For instance, in 2009, in Nairobi,Kenya, in an incident, two
human rights defenders were assassinated after meeting with an
independent UN expert investigating police killings in Kenya. Kenya
National Commission on Human Rights, along with the civil society groups munotes.in
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17 Civil Society Organisation and the State in Kenya demanded an independent inquiry into the assassination of two
human rights defenders in Nairobi.
The Kenya Human Rights Commission is particularly symbolic of this
phenomeno n. It recruited its members in the 1990s, drawing from exiled
academics and political prisoners. Such personal characteristics were in the
line with the demands of an organisation that was fighting for democratic
space from the regime. During the General E lections of 2007, it displayed
itself more as a research and political analysis organization. Essentially a
defender of human rights, it had a more passive role as a guardian of the
principles of political plurality and electoral justice. (Connan,2001)
We see the disturbing and deeper significance of the limits on CSOs
collaborations. For Example, in Belarus, a vibrant civil society coexisted in
an authoritarian regime in a depoliticized co -optation mode. Through co -
optation, the energy of civil society was driven from being a threat to the
regime into being its resource. However, the capacity developed by civil
society during this period of political instability and recklessness was
channelized toward political manoeuvres.
The result was seen during the ec onomic crisis, the regime’s failure to deal
with the Covid -19 pandemic, and later in the events leading to the 2020
presidential election. After the 2020 mass demonstrations, in which civil
society played an instrumental role, the regime’s treatment of civ il society
turned to suppression and restrictions.
As many countries around the world are tightening control over civil spaces,
it is imminent to find out how these collaborations can go on without,
sacrificing autonomy and voice.
2.6 SUMMARY
The formatio n of Civil society exhibits political governance with open
public policy decision -making for all community organizations. A strong
civil society can only exist within a democratic framework guaranteed by
the government.
As such UNDP defines Civil society as the third sector existing alongside
and interacting with the state and the government. A large number of CSOs
are active in supporting the parliamentary government, electoral system and
processes, justice and human rights, advocacy, local governance, a nd
administrative reforms. Active participation of CSOs ensures that law -
making is the domain of elected representatives in a democracy, rather than
un-elected ones. Similarly, civil society’s role as a facilitator of democracy
and development and a watchd og must be acknowledged by the
government. Unfortunately, civic space is shrinking in many countries – this
ranges from increasingly restrictive legislation and administrative hurdles
being put in place to smear campaigns and political persecution of activ ists.
The Corona crisis has in many countries led to a further restriction of civil
liberties and freedom of speech and restrictions on CSOs in many countries.
For example, The Council for a Community for Democracies established in munotes.in
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18 Civil Society and Democracy
18 2001 and headquartered in Washington D.C., USA, works to strengthen the
collaboration among communities across democratic nations. The council
promotes the implementation of resolutions promulgated at the 2002
Community of democracies meeting in Seoul.
Civil Society Internation al headquartered in Seattle (USA) is a non -profit
organization that works for democracy and civil society organizations in
countries. It brings information about projects worldwide committed to
limited government, popular elections, rule of law, freedom of expression,
free market, aid to sick, old and orphaned, etc.
Yet another Civil society organization making an important contribution is
CIVICUS headquartered in Johannesburg, South Africa. Established in
1993 it works for the rights of citizens in areas, especially where the rights
of citizens are threatened. It promotes free expression and supports a Civil
society watch program, a legitimacy, and transparency program, and a
Participatory Governance program. It also promotes the Civil society Index.
These are only a few CSOs, out of the umpteen CSOs working for
democracy. A large number of CSOs are seen are not accountable to only
their donors. Many CSOs are found to be corrupt and aim for political power
through the path of philanthropy. Besides, there is a lack of democracy in
the internal organization of some of CSOs which makes them ineffective
and prone to corrupt practices.
In many weak states and developing states civil society is used as a tool by
the government for advancing its own interests and consolidating power.
For example, independent women organizations in Turkey report that they
are becoming increasingly excluded from the policy and legislative
discussions as seemingly Civic organizations are supported and created by
the government to repl ace them. (Doyle,2017)
These problems must be addressed through necessary remedial measures.
The role of CSOs is vital for addressing human insecurity. It helps in
making government accountable and enriching social capital through active
engagement in loca l, regional, and national governance especially in
developing countries like India.
2.7 EXERCISE
Check your Progress Exercise 1
Note i: Use the Space given below for your answer
1. Examine the relationship of Civil society Organizations with the
State? H ow do CSOs contribute to good governance?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________ __________________________
____________________________________________________________ munotes.in
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19 Civil Society Organisation and the State 2.8 REFERENCES
1. Anastasiya Astapova, Vasil Navumau, Ryhor Nizhnikau & Leonid
Polishchuk (2022) Authoritarian Cooptation of Civil Society: The
Case of Belarus, Europe -Asia Studies, 74:1, 1-
30, DOI: 10.1080/09668136.2021.2009773
2. Bunbongkarn, Suchit (2001) The role of civil society in democratic
consolidation in Asia
https://apcss.org/Publications/Edited%20Volumes/GrowthGovernan
ce_files/Pub_Growth%20Governance/Pub_GrowthGovernancech10.
pdf
3. Dominique Connan,(2008) The Human Rights Civil Society. The
East African Review http://journals.openedition.org/eastafrica/741 ;
DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/eastafrica.741
4. Danish Refugee Council. https://dr c.ngo/it -matters/current -
affairs/2021/5/ https://www.drishtiias.com/mains -practice -
question/question -1256/pnt
5. Drishti IAS, 10 May 2022. https://www.drishtiias.com/mains -
practice -question/question -1256/pnt
6. Greer SL, Wismar M, Kosinska M. What is civil society and what can
it do for health? In: Greer SL, Wismar M, Pastorino G, et al., editors.
Civil society and health: Contributions and potential.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.n ih.gov/books/NBK459047/
7. Jessica Leigh Doyle (2018) Government co -option of civil society:
exploring the AKP’s role within Turkish women’s
CSOs, Democratization, 25:3, 445-
463, DOI: 10.1080/13 510347.2017.1373096
8. Kalinowski,
Thomas(2008)Civil_Society_Synergy_and_Cooptation_The_Case_o
f_the_Minority_Shareholder_Movement_in_Korea
9. Kanya Clovice,kandinda Annah and Rwabukwali B. Charles (2013)
The Role of Civil society organisations (CSOs) in healthcare Delivery
system: A case study child immunisation in Kabarole district,
Uganda., 5:8, 1277 -1288,
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/health.2013.58174
10. Marwaha,Puja(2021) Down to Earth
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/governance/celebrating -the-
role-of-indian -ngos -in-combating -the-covid -19-pandemic -75697
11. Open Society Foundations (2009) Government Watchdog and Civil
Society Groups Demand an Independent Inquiry into Assassination
of Human Rights Defenders in Kenya.
https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/newsroom/government -munotes.in
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20 Civil Society and Democracy
20 watchdog -and-civil-societ y-groups -demand -independent -inquiry -
assassination
12. Oluajo,Babatunde. Civil Society as Societal Wtchdog in Promoting
Public Accountability.
13. What's the Civil in Civil Society? Robert Putnam, Italy and the
Republican Tradition. Political Studies.VL - 51
14. Selznick,D. (1949). TVA and the Grass Roots: A Study in the
sociology of Formal Organizations. Berkeley,CA,University of
California.
15. Smilie, Ian and Evenson Kristie . Sustainable Civil society or Service
Delivery Agencies?
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/sipa/U6190/week6/sustainable.pdf
16. Syal, R., van Wessel, M., & Sahoo, S. (2021). Collaboration, Co -
Optation or Navigation? The Role of Civil Society in Disaster
Governa nce in India. Voluntas, 32(4), 795 -808.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11266 -021-00344 -8
17. UNDP(1993) A Guide to civil society organizations working on
democratic governance’.
https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/publications/2005
_UNDP_A -guide -to-CSOs -working -on-Democratic -
Governance_EN.pdf
18. WHO(2001).Strategic Alliances, Role of The Civil Society in Health
. Discussion paper No.1. CSI/
2001ttps://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/279937/CSI -
2001/DP1 -eng.pdf?sequence=1
7777777munotes.in
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21 3
SPACES OF CIVIL SOCIETY
ORGANISATION’S ACTIONS
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions
3.3 Religion
3.4 Media
3.5 Markets
3.6 Summary
3.7 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to explore the operational areas of Civil Society
Organisations with special regards to religion, media and markets.
After studying this unit, learners should be able to:
• Visualise the diverse spaces of action occupied by Civil Society
Organisations.
• Problematise the role of Civil Society Organisations in the fields of
religion, media and markets.
• Apply the learnings from the chapter to understand the workings of
various Civil Society Or ganisations in India and around the world.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters learners were introduced to the idea of civil society
while mapping its dynamic relations with regards to the state as a sovereign
political entity, their areas of coopera tion and contestations. A quick
revision of what civil society entails is undertaken below. P. K. B. Nayar
gives a detailed review of prominent historical and modern theoretical
perspectives on civil society and its interactions with the state. Starting wi th
the social contractualist understanding, to the Hegelian notion of both
“shaping and reshaping each other”, and to the Gramscian view that
envisages “an identifiable autonomy of civil society which gives it a distinct
space for operation and development ,” using counter hegemony against
state hegemony. (Nayar, 2014) Michael Walzer’s definition of civil society
as “the sphere of uncoerced human association between the individual and
the state, in which people undertake colle ctive action for normative and
substantive purposes, relatively independent of government and the munotes.in
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22 Civil Society and Democracy
22 market,” lays emphasis on the voluntary nature of civil society
organisations’ formation and the possible areas of actions. (Walzer, 1998)
Broadly speaking Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) include : “the wide
array of non -governmental and not for profit organizations that have a
presence in public life, express the interests and values of their members
and others, based on ethical, cultural, political, scientific, religious or
philanthropic considerations .” (World Bank ) Most traditional units of civil
society have an associational character, for example political parties,
religious, caste and ling uistic associations, professional societies, major
players in political society. The CSOs are more often than not driven by
primordial identities and their interests, thus adding on to the complex
“patron -client relations” (Ronig HU *QHú -Ayata, 1994) in the socio -
political arrangements around us. T.K. Oommen describes the
secularisation of social movements in India as a direct impact of the
emergence of the nation -state and ‘growth of civil collectivities.”
(Oommen, 2013) This is reflected in the broadening of the areas of concern
for civil society towards a more pluralist, secular and post -ideological
directions.
Learners were also previously familiarised with the diverse roles Civil
Society Organisations (CSOs) play as an active watchdog, service delivery
vehicles, maintaining or challenging status quo in the public sphere. This
growth spurt of CSOs coincides with two momentous developments of 20th
century. A wave of democratisation in E astern Europe in late 1980s to early
1990s with a couple of Newly Independent States (NIS) being created
following the disintegration of the Soviet Union, eagerly looking for an
alternative to excessive state centralisation and reimagining forms of
collect ive power. The next catalyst was the emergence of the World Bank’s
developmental discourse on good governance and citizen centric
participatory democracy. The World Bank had established within its
External Relations Department a Non -Governmental Developmen tal
Organisation (NGDO) office in 1982 during the hay days of Reaganism and
Thatcherism in the USA and the UK respectively. (Edwards, 2011) The
CSOs fit well like a jigsaw puzzle in this neo -liberal pursuit of
“participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent, responsive,
effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive manner of governance
following the rule of law.” (Governance and Development, 1992)
Various multi -lateral organisations began to emphasise on the ei ght
characteristics of good governance as prerequisites for foreign aid and
funding requirements for developing nations. Thus a niche area was carved
out for the working of Non -Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and their
growth was enthusiastically promote d in the aid recipient nations of the
global south. As per the new paradigm these developing nations were
perceived to have serious lapses in key resource management,
manufacturing and delivery of public and social goods and services,
neglected by the stat e and the market, both too big to fail yet somehow
lacking. This was where the CSOs the “third sector,” the “non -profit
sector,” and the “social economy” (Edwards, 2011) were to step in “between
the state and the market, occup ied by non -government, non -commercial munotes.in
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23 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions citizens, and organised and devoted to the public good.” (Bernard, 1998)
The definition of CSOs as a third sector was a result of a meeting held in
Paris in 1998 by the Council of Europe and the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development ( OECD) on collaborations with CSOs in
developing countries. (Edwards, 2011)
Scholars have in great detail covered the mushrooming of the CSOs in India
post-independence that focused on nation -building, the Gandhian ones,
religious, philanthropic/ charity based, scientific and literary societies, the
press, trade unions, and a few rights based organisations representing the
frustrations of the angry young Indians representing the masses who were
systematically denied the fruits of the nation’s progress. (Kothari, 1989)
(Oomme n, 2004) (Chandhoke, 2012) Yet others have looked at the after -
effects of the 1991New Economic Policy also known as the Rao -Singh
economic reforms on the roles played by CSOs. A series of alterations in
the structure o f the Indian economy took place that resulted in a substantial
retreat of the state from the public sector. (Tandon, 2013) These new CSOs
namely were the new electronic and television media, Non -Governmental
Organisations (NGOs ) or Non -Party Political Formulations (NPPFs),
chapters of global civil society organisations, Community Based
Organisations (CBOs), Self -Help Groups (SHGs), social enterprise and
social entrepreneurs, Neighbourhood Associations, Grassroots associations,
Voluntary Agencies (VAs) and sporadic civic movements. They were
notable for being urbane, non -identitarian, pro -participatory democracy,
good governance and at times welfare oriented with persuasive,
collaborative or confrontational strategies depending on the government’s
response. (Mohan, 2002)
3.2 SPACES OF CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATION ’S
ACTIONS
Learners know of the hierarchical supremacy that the nation -states have
come to command over regular human associations in society. The nation -
state depending on h ow open they are to the possibility of working together
and/ or within a pluralist public sphere, may permit, encourage or deter the
working of CSOs. This is especially true under an all seeing and omnipotent
state that exercises the monopoly of violence i n the Weberian sense. State
bureaucracy and even security apparatus are also wary of involvement of
foreign powers that may create disaffection amongst the masses against the
state. The areas of operation of CSOs can be perceived to be anti -state or
pro-state by the authorities, thus CSOs either accrue state honours or ire.
All of which lead them to tightly regulate the establishment of CSOs,
deciding the legal permissibility of their chosen area of working, mandating
various clearances, adherence to fundin g rules and regulations, etc. Most
democratic countries have a robust civil society. State corporatism is seen
in some authoritarian regimes that selectively promote certain varieties of
civil society actors deemed useful for their agenda. (Gordon White, 2003) munotes.in
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24 Civil Society and Democracy
24 Illiberal regimes may outright ban the functioning of CSOs that are
perceived as a threat.
According to Edwards, all civic collective actions by civil society
organisations cannot take place without meeting certain “pre -conditions of
voice, security and rights for the participation in the conversation among
citizens envisaged by the proponents of civil society.” (Edwards, 2011) The
major areas or spaces of action undertaken by CSOs can be und erstood
using Benjamin Barber’s categorisation of civil society into libertarian,
communitarian and strong democracy model. (Barber, 1998) According to
the libertarian tradition civil society is a proxy for the private market sector,
pitting the people and the government against each other. CSOs are
collectives that help “forge informed protests beyond the immediate interest
based ones.” (Ajay Gudavarthy, 2007) They look at it through the lens of
social contract, a power struggle between individual liberty of rights bearing
consumer citizens and state tyranny. The c ommunitarians define civil
society largely in terms of "given" or "ascriptive" identities received due to
a lottery of birth in a family , the religion, race, ethnicity, etc. The model of
"strong democracy" stresses on increased citizen participation and the idea
of common good which might take a majoritarian turn. They are primarily
civic in orientation, committed to exploring common groun d, doing public
work, and pursuing common relations. Most prominent ones engage in
some form of civic activism and collective action thus “nurturing solidarity
and empathy” in people. (Chandhoke, 2012) As per Atlas of Civil Society,
2022 "only three per cent of the world's population are fortunate enough to
live in countries where the conditions for civil society action can be
described as 'open.' It is a vindication of the anti -democratic tendency seen
in Bertelsmann Trans formation Index and Amnesty International's annual
reports. (Welle, 2022)
CSOs themselves may choose to work in various fields either directly at
grassroots level as representative citizens groups or at more technical,
policy advocacy levels as think tanks. There is a growing trend towards
professionalization of NGOs and grassro ots organisations especially with
regards to internal organisation and communication structures. They are
adopted as tools for gaining more legitimacy while dealing with the state.
(Buth, 2011) With more managerial terms domina ting their operations like
deliverables, project management, public relations management and impact
factor, there are fears of a dip in their representativeness. (Pant, 2017) CSOs
over the years have reached milestones in the fields of furthering
democracy, good governance, civil liberties, social empower, service
delivery, public work and public policy, poverty alleviation, Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs), environmental protection, media and
journalism, civic awareness ge neration, conflict resolution and peace
building, countering market forces and the power differentials in the
society. In the following section we shall be looking at three primary spaces
of actions of CSOs namely, religion, media and market munotes.in
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25 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions Check Your Pro gress Exercise 1
Note: Use the space given below for your answer.
1) What are civil society organisations? Explain the term “third
sector”.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
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3.3 RELIGION
We shall presently undertake an analysis of the instrumentalist role of
religious institutions in maintaining or challenging status quo, consolidation
of state power, influencing policy formulation; and how secular civil society
organisations act as bulwark against fundamentalist diktat. Sectarian groups
are primarily spiritual in nature and they may not usually engage with
political institutions. But very often religions and its presence go beyond
the usual divine -human encounters’ realm and have enjoyed considerable
influence in the soc iety. Religious dogmas, the sanctioning of caste
hierarchy gave legitimacy to certain regressive practices that showed fatal
disregard to human dignity and liberty in the Indian subcontinent. The
Catholic Church’s persecution of free thinking women as witc hes and the
inquisition of Galileo Galilei are famously anti -democratic. The church’s
meddling in the constant wars in Europe was another bone of contention for
the Kings. A solution was found in the emergence of the Westphalian
nation -state system in 1648 and Laïcité , the separation of the state and the
church. It demarcated jurisdictions for the two rivals, the spiritual for the
church and the temporal and political for the state. However numerous
states have successfully taken to the theocratic route and multiple statesmen
have used religion and its belief systems to legitimise their rule. The active
role of the Pope in medieval Europe, the Caliph in the Ottoman Empire, the
Ayatollah in post -revolution Iran and the Dalai Lama in Sino -Tibetan
relations is well known.
The world witnessed colonial empires facilitating the spread of their
religions in their occupied territories and how such religious institutions in
turn play an instrumentalist role in consolidation of state power. The
Catholic Doctrine of Di scovery (Newcomb, 2020) was an extension of the
white man’s burden which inevitably brought along with it, cultural
genocide. Pope Francis’s apology in July 2022 for the abuse of the First
Nations in church run residential sch ool system in Canada (1881 – 1996) munotes.in
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26 Civil Society and Democracy
26 for their forced assimilation is a sobering reminder of such horrors.
(Maskwacis, 2022) The rise of the Russian Orthodox Church in post -Soviet
politics showcases another classic example of blu rring of the lines between
church and the state, more precisely a successful collaborationist effort. The
views of the head bishop called Patriarch has had visible impact on state
policies, like establishment of religious education in public schools (2012) ,
promotion of large families reflected in the introduction of Maternity
Capital Policy (2007) and Oder of Parental Glory state award (2008).
Church’s emphasis on “traditional values,” critique of western liberal ideas,
condemnation of feminism, abortion, euthanasia, homosexuality and same -
sex marriages (Freeze, 2017) has helped to further entrench social
conservatism into socio -political fabric of contemporary Russia. Its support
for the 2022 Ukrainian invasion calling it a “h oly war” can be seen as a quid
pro-quo for the state’s financial support.
According to Putnam, an association creates social capital, collective
consciousness and broadens sense of self. (Putnam, 2000) We have also
seen religious institutions revitalising the civil society in places that
witnessed state repression of religion. The Catholic Church’s role in help
building a “new social movement” by liaising between the working class,
the intelligentsia an d mobilising the believers to join the Solidarity
Movement against the communist government in Poland in the 80s is well
documented. (Mason, 1989) In this vein come the revivalist and anti -
colonial struggles put up by various oriental and aboriginal religions that
worked to unify society like the Zulus in South Africa and the Samajists in
India. The Indian renaissance had a rich phase of civil society organisation
building by towering figures like Raja Ram Mohan Roy (Atmiya Sab ha),
Jotirao Phule (Satyashodhak Samaj), Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s Aligarh
Movement and Sree Narayana Guru’s SNDPY (Sree Narayana Dharma
Paripalana Yogam). These socio -religious reform movements in colonial
India managed to bring about utilitarian legislative reforms and to awaken
mass consciousness against social oppression. Many modern day
progressive civil society organisations faithfully work on strengthening
democratic rights and enabling individual autonomy. The legacy of Dr.
Narendra Dabholkar, Indian ra tionalist and founder of Maharshtra
Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti is reflected in the passage of
Maharashtra Prevention and Eradication of Human Sacrifice and other
Inhuman, Evil and Aghori Practices and Black Magic Act, 2013. His killing
has helped raise awareness on the need for scientific temper in our society.
Vanitha Mathil (Women’s Wall) the largest congregation of women in
Kerala was a governmental collaboration with progressive socio -political
organisations to reassert the values of Navodhana Keral am (Renaissance
Kerala) in 2020. (Ameerudheen, 2019) It was in the aftermath of violent
clashes by the orthodoxy after the Supreme Court declared unconstitutional
the practice of prohibiting the entry of women in the menstruat ing age in
the Sabarimala temple (under review petition). (Kantaru Rajeevaru vs.
Indian Young Lawyers Association, 2018)
Nation -states of all kind, liberal, theocratic or authoritarian may not
recognise multi -cultural or grou p rights and thus supress them using state
or other agencies. It may range from public ban on the burkini in famously munotes.in
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27 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions secular France, denial of citizenship rights to religious minorities, to grave
instances of political violence and mistreatment like that of the Uyghur and
Falun Gong in China and the persecution of Rohingyas in Myanmar.
According to Varshney, “the presence or absence of inter -ethnic, or inter -
communal, civic organizations —business associations, professional
organizations, labour unions, po litical parties, reading clubs, sports clubs,
film clubs, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and political parties —
was critical to explaining why some cities had chronic ethno -communal
violence in India, while others, despite huge provocations, remained
always, or nearly always, peaceful.” (Gubler, 2016) These agencies of
community interactions aides in strengthening of social capital and bonding
that can considerable withstand pressures of competing polarization
strategies. One must revisit the UDHR articles 18, 19 and 20 (United
Nations Organisations, 1948) , UN Declaration on the Elimination of All
forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief,
1981 and the 2019 UNGA Resolution 73/296. Michelle Bachelet, t he UN
High Commissioner for Human Rights urged member “States to counter
advocacy of hatred and discrimination and to promote reconciliation,
durable peace and sustainable development, through initiatives of inter -faith
and inter -cultural dialogue, inclusion and respect for human rights.”
(UNOHCHR, 2021)
Even the most pacifist religious communities may take up an active role in
finding solutions for human depravity that has their roots in the political
realm by leveraging their authority, when political realism so demands.
(Miller, 2011) The Baptismal Covenant of the Episcopal Church has a small
catechism, a question asked during the rite of initiation into the church “Will
you strive for justice and peace among all people, and respect the dignity of
every human being?” The individual’s prescribed answer is that with God’s
help they will. (Episcopal Church, 1867) The role played by Rev. Martin
Luther King Jr. in the Civil Rights Movement reified Tocqueville’s
observation that religion positively contributed to the growth of democratic
institutions in the USA. The intervention of Faith Based Organisations
(FBOs) in the struggle for so cial justice is well documented worldwide. The
anti-Vietnam War campaign by renowned Buddhist monk Thich Nhat Hanh
in the 1960s led to his exile from Vietnam. Liberation Theology propounded
by Gustavo Gutierrez led to the reinvention of the Roman Catholic Church
as a people’s organisation in Latin American countries, fighting against
dictatorial regimes. It threw light on the global north -south divide, the need
for political and social liberation, the elimination of the immediate causes
of poverty and injus tice, from all “those things that limit their (oppressed)
capacity to develop themselves freely and in dignity ”. (Guti érrez, 1973) We
have also seen religious institutions revitalising the civil society in places
that witnessed state repression of religion. The Catholic Church’s role in
help building a “new social movement” by liaising between the working
class, the intelligentsia and mobilising the believers to join the Solidarity
Movement against the communist government in Poland in the 80s is well
documented. (Mason, 1989) Anti-apartheid activism of Archbishop
Desmond Tutu had direct impact on the phil osophical foundations of the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa. Pope Francis in his munotes.in
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28 Civil Society and Democracy
28 apology to the indigenous Bolivians for the offences of the Church also
criticised the present economy of exclusion and inequality, the one that also
destroys Mother Earth. (Neuman, 2015) The reverence given to rivers in
Hindu religion partly informed the creation of the Namami Gange
Programme (National Mission for Clean Ganga, 2014). It was also seen in
a Public Interest Litig ation (PIL) judgement of the High Court of
Uttarakhand that declared the rivers Ganga and Yamuna as legal persons.
(Mohammad Saleem vs. State of Uttarakhand, 2018) (Lalit Miglani vs.
State of Uttarakhan d, 2017) This is part of a globally evolving jurisprudence
invoking parens patriae and loco parentis principles for expanding
responsibilities of the paternalistic state towards environment conservation.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: Use the s pace given below for your answer.
Q.2. Explain instrumentalist role played by Faith Based Organisations.
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
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3.4 MEDIA
Traditional legacy print media along with cartoons, music, literature, art,
films and documentaries are the fourth estate in a democracy. The use of
various mediums to strengthen civil society and national liberatio n
movements is well known. Abanindranath Tagore ’s painting of Bharat
Mata (1905) helped popularise emotional connect to the personification of
India, aiding the process of formation of an “imagined community.”
(Anderson, 2006) The significance of Rabindranath Tagore’s Bengali song
“Ekla Cholo Re” goes beyond its intended meaning of unrelenting
individual principled protest to forging national unity in the face of colonial
oppression and the 1905 Partition of Bengal. The usage o f prayers in the
meetings of Mahatma Gandhi successfully spun communal harmony in
colonial India. The aesthetics of Socialist Realism as envisioned by Maxim
Gorky of the Soviet Writers Group was more than just creation of optimistic
depictions of Soviet li fe. It aimed to make art accessible to the people
through advertisements, murals and paintings carrying political messages.
(Art in context, 2021) Following in this path was the All India Progressive
Writers’ Association, 1936 in colonial India that characterised the writer as
an activist creating meaningful art that holds a mirror to the society. The
poetry of Faiz Ahmed Faiz is a shining example of this tradition. (Haq,
2017) munotes.in
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29 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions First newspapers, radios and then television fun damentally altered the
public sphere and the formation of public discourse. (Calhoun, 2011) The
role of Marathi newspapers (Navayug), Marathi Sahitya Sammelan (1939),
stalwart playwrights and poets in raising consciousness of the masses in the
Samyukta Maharashtra Movement for creation of separate linguistic state
of Maharashtra is part of public memory. “Hiroshima” a series of articles
by John Hersey through its unique narrative journalism style revealed the
scale of human suf fering unleashed by the atomic bombing to the readers in
USA and the world. (Hersey, 1946) It successfully overcame the
information blackout created by the US war propaganda machinery. The
introduction of new electronic and vi sual media showcased the power of
images in the age of reducing attention span. “The Napalm Girl” photo of
Phan Thi Kim Phuc by Nick Ut went on to be the face of the horrors of the
Vietnam War. It showcased the aftereffects of the accidental bombing by a
South Vietnamese plane on its own people. It won a Pulitzer and the World
Press Photo of the Year, 1972. (Frozen in time , 2012) The 1994 Pulitzer
Prize winning photograph of a vulture and a baby by Kevin Carter depicting
the famine ravaged South Sudan, not only raised eyebrows on journalistic
ethics but also brought to light appalling governmental inefficiency as well
as global apathy. Media possesses immense potential to limit the power of
elected representatives by holding th em accountable and influence public
policy to an extent. The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad (KSSP), 1962 led
by science writers “operates in the areas of education, environment,
ecology, health, resource management, consumer consciousness, women’s
issues, national integration, etc.” (Kumar, 2021) The Paristhithi
Samrakshana Samiti, a mass movement ran awareness campaigns,
newspaper articles, literary pieces (Jayarajan, 2020) and catalysing the
grow th of numerous nature clubs. After sustained efforts the Silent Valley
Hydro Electric Project (SVHEP) on the Kunthipuzha River was called off
in 1983. This started a serious and on -going debate on environmental
sustainability and the idea of development in India. Media also plays an
active role in amplifying the exemplary work done by civil society
organisations. Today almost all NGOs and associations have online
presence and may even seek funding from crowdsourcing platforms.
State control over broadcast ing corporations and public radio is aimed to
serve to the masses what the state deemed as newsworthy or fit for their
“agenda setting and thought control” purposes. (Lukes, 2005) Radio
Rwanda’s demonization of the minority Tu tsi population on air as inyenzi
or “cockroaches” that needed to “disappear once and for all” and how it
successfully orchestrated a state sponsored genocide at the hands of the
majority Hutus in 1994, occurred in our recent past. (Kiernan, 2007) Even
in places where media ownership is liberalised, the state has considerable
influence as it provides a major chunk of revenue to private newspapers and
cable TV networks via advertisements. However the rise of private cable
TV, 24x 7 news channels, spinning out new genre of infotainment, sting
operations, non -profit investigative journalism, fact checkers, citizen
reportage, and community run media with varying revenue models, ground
presence and viewership, helps balance the scenari o. The large scale usage
of state owned All India Radio is attributed to its news bulletins, educative munotes.in
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30 Civil Society and Democracy
30 programmes and dissemination of public policy, the Prime Minister’s Mann
Ki Baat programme among others that caters to multitude of rural masses,
farmers , students, and culturally diverse audiences. This is significant at a
time when internet penetration is only 54%. (Institute, 2022) The
emergency of new English TV news channels in India aroused citizen
engagement in newer fo rms, live call in programmes, audience polls and
even raising mass movements. The guidelines issued by the Election
Commission of India on the ban of publication of pre and post poll surveys
(1998 -1999) was another failed bureaucratic attempt at curtailing press
freedom interpreted by the Supreme Court of India under Art 19 (1) (a) of
the Constitution of India. This serves to highlight the role of media in
information dissemination, public opinion generation and influence on
voter behaviour, that can be wither positive or negative. Prominent
examples when media managed to amplify pu blic outcry were on the
following occasions: the murder of journalist Jessica Lal (1999), the Gujarat
riots (2002), the India Against Corruption Movement (2011), the Delhi gang
rape case (2012), the Una protests on atrocities against members of the
Schedul ed Castes (2016), anti - Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) -
National Register of Citizens (NRC) protests (2019 - 2020), the anti -Farm
laws bill protests (2020 -2021), the Save Aarey Movement, etc. Media thus
creates an informed public opinion with their in -depth coverage and
analysis of pressing issues of our times and about decisions made or not
made by the establishment.
Most of the leading media outlets in India are controlled by corporate
houses and individuals with political ties. ((RSF), 2019) The Television
Rating Point (TRP) fuels primetime debates and “Fox News Model”
theatrics by star TV anchors. The conscious delaying and distorting of the
truth by TV media raised distrust in science and impacted awareness
creation in gen eral. The endemic nature selective reportage, engagement in
political dog whistle, phenomena of paid news is of great concern
worldwide. The gradual decay of journalistic standards however has
affected news consumption patterns worldwide, with considerable fall in
trust in news and news avoidance by youngsters. (Institute, 2022) “News
media reporting is understood to play a central role during national security
and health emergencies (Laing, 2011 ; Klemm et al., 2016 ;
Pieri, 2019 ).” The COVID -19 pandemic reporting had moderate scientific
quality and the level of sensationalism depended on the political leanings of
the media firms. (Mach, 2021) However the looming impact of the images
of innumerable py res burning by Reuters photojournalists late Danish
Siddiqui and colleagues won the Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography in
May 2022. It "balanced intimacy and devastation, while offering viewers a
heightened sense of place." (Reuters, 2022) It also highlighted the dire state
of public health infrastructure in India.
Civil society finds its purpose when faced with authoritarianism.
(Chandhoke, 2012) The emergence of vocal editorials in the face of
widespread excesses and media gagging during the emergency in India is
one such instance. The 2010 WikiLeaks expose of diplomatic cables by
Julian Assange on the US war crimes in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the 2013
revelations by whistle blower Edwa rd Snowden opened up discussions and munotes.in
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31 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions mass surveillance. They raise questions of privacy, human rights and civic
propriety that is uncomfortable to the all -powerful state, which labels them
as threats to national interest. The 2021 Nobel Peace Prize is sign ificant now
as it was awarded to journalists, more than eight decades after Carl von
Ossietzky in 1935. The victory of Dmitry Muratov, the editor -in-chief of
Novaya Gazeta from Russia and Maria Ressa, the co -founder of Rappler,
digital news site, faces leg al charges in the Philippines for her journalism,
acts as a sounding board for the existential threat to the freedom of press
worldwide. Muratov says “Journalists are …the defence line between
dictatorship and war.” (Cadwalladr, 20 21) The Norwegian Nobel
Committee’s announcement states, “free, independent and fact based
journalism serves to protect against abuse of power, lies and war
propaganda. (Committee, 2021) The discussions on free speech and
blasphemy laws of theocratic regimes has revived especially in the
aftermath of rising incidents of intolerance worldwide, of hurt religious
sentiments, calls for boycotts and bans on books or pieces of art, literature
and their creator that art percei ved as critical of the establishment or socio -
religious norms. Latest in memory are the mob lynching of a Sri Lankan
migrant worker in Pakistan in 2021, outrage on the film Kaali
(Manimekalai, 2022) and the August 2022 deadly attack on author Salman
Rushdie in New York. The democratic sliding seen in the 150th ranking of
India in the Press Freedom Index, 2022 published by Reporters without
Borders (RSF) is a matter of concern. The Civicus Monitor provides civic
space rating as closed, repressed, obstructed, narrowed and open for 196
countries. India falls in the repressed category “where increasing
restrictions threaten the ability of civil society to carry out its work and
where authorities continue to suppress peaceful protest s.” (Civicus, 2022)
This is in tandem with a global era of polarisation, state crackdown on
journalists, the usage of Pegasus spyware by states and growing
disinformation campaigns.
Contemporary global movements like the #PrideMonth,
#MeTooMovement and #BlackLivesMatter normalised the usage of new
social media platforms to voices the demands of justice – gender, racial,
social, etc. It gave public visibility, more accessibility and sp ace for the
sharing of abuse and trauma that individuals face in multiple fields like
cinema, academia and corporate world. The Academy of Motion Picture
Arts and Sciences’ apology to Sacheen Littlefeather, actor and a Native
American activist is another b eacon of hope for change. It decried the
unjustified abuse she had to endure during her speech as the spokesperson
for actor Marlon Brando, declining the Best Actor Award, 1973 in support
of Native American rights and flagging their maltreatment in Hollywo od.
But all is not well. The 2018 Cambridge Analytica – Facebook scandal
involved sale of psychographic data to political parties around the world for
micro -voter targeting on social media platforms. One such beneficiary is
said to be former US President D onald Trump in the 2016 elections.
Facebook, its CEO and other officials have been doing the rounds of
multiple US Congressional hearings for failing to protect user’s privacy
rights. (Lapowsky, 2019) Muratov and Ressa along with eight other Nobel
laureates have put forward a technology action plan to tackle online munotes.in
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32 Civil Society and Democracy
32 disinformation, hate speech and abuse in this increasingly post -truth
society . The 10 –point manifesto states: “We urge rights -respecting
democracies to wake up to the existential threat of information ecosystems
being distorted by a Big Tech business model fixated on harvesting people’s
data and attention, even as it undermines serious journalism and polarises
debate in society and political l ife,” (Milmo, 2022) Of the six areas
proposed by Benjamin Barber for legislative action in support of civil
society are the enlargement and reinforcement of public spaces; fostering
civic uses of new telecommunications and inf ormation technologies, such
as a "civic Internet," electronic town meetings, and a check on mass -media
advertising for children. (Reviews, 1999) The Copyleft (intellectual
property license) movement (1983) was initiated by Rich ard Stallman, the
founder of the Free Software Foundation (FSF). He along with Creative
Commons, a non -profit global organisation envisions making the sharing of
digital technology, knowledge and even art free of cost for netizens. In the
same spirit Alexa ndra Elbakyan, founded Sci -Hub in 2016, one of the
largest sites to override pay walls of journal websites. Leading a new
movement in science journalism that promotes free knowledge
accessibility, she also faces multiple law suits including in India for
copyright infringement. (Baruah, 2021) In this section we thus looked at the
role played by media as a prominent civil society actor.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: Use the space given below for your answer.
Q.3. Explain with examples the public opinion creation role of media
in civil society.
………………………………………………………………………………
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3.5 MARKETS
Civil society organisations are omnipresent in almost all areas of human
relations, including the field of “substantive economics.” It analyses the
relationship between arrangements for the production and a cquisition of
goods, kinship, religion and other identitarian organisations and the role of
economy in society. (Polanyi, 1944) The cult of homo economicus1, rational
economic man depicts a profit motivated and self -centred in dividual. But
individual’s consumption choices and decisions are influenced not just by
the utility principle but also by socio -religious practices, egalitarianism,
1 Coined by J.S. Mill, in his essay "On the Definition of Political Economy, and
on the Method of Investigation Proper to It," London and Westminster Review,
October 1836. munotes.in
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33 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions political context, prevalent public policy, and man -made market forces of
demand and supply . The influence that huge producers organisations
(Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM),
and interest groups lobbying ( National Rifle Association (NRA) in USA)
have on public policy is well known. The influence of sugar lobby in
Maharashtra politics is well known with many leaders starting their career
from these cooperative societies and achieving much electoral success.
A leveraging of “social capital” of ethn ic identity is displayed by the
Radhanite Jewish merchants in medieval ages. (Hanifan, 1920) In the
Dumontian sense human beings are homo hierarchicus, (Dumont, 1988) the
caste (jati) and chaturva rna system determined ones occupations, mobility,
access to wealth and opportunities. The ‘private proprietorship’
establishments ownership based on social groupings as per the All India 6th
Economic Census, 2013 “revealed that 11.4% were owned by schedule d
Castes, 5.4% by Scheduled Tribes, 40.8% by Other Backward Classes and
42.4% by others.” ((MoSPI), 2013 - 2014) Associational groups are
prominent players in the markets providing information, employment,
building networks, re gulating and controlling niche trade activities like
banking and money lending, garment and diamond industry, community
lodging, kitchen, matchmaking, etc. Most popular examples are the
Marwaris, Palanpuri Jains, Sindhis, Khatris, Lohanas, Porwal Gujaratis ,
Patels, Nattukottai Chettiars, Gounders of the Bania or Vaishya community.
(Bayly, 1983) Community driven industrial clusters are not democratic in
structure, meaning that they area exclusive in nature. Their hiring,
promotio ns, partnerships decisions are coloured by implicit biases, thus
“reinforcing the iniquitous social structures.” (Mahajan, 1999) Caste has
merely lost its rurality. The urban industrial towns promised anonymity and
occupationa l mobility but caste, gender and religion becomes become a
sorting criteria visible in the stereotyping of jobs, discrimination in job
ranking, contractual hiring, rental and housing markets, educational
campuses, (Mosse, 2018) and even the IT sector in Silicon valley.
(Department of Fair Employment and Housing (DFEH) v. Cisco Systems,
Inc., 2022) The demands for reservation by agrarian communities via the
Patidar Anamat Andolan Samiti (PAAS), Kapu State Committee, Gurjar
Arakshan Sangharsh Samiti, Maratha Mahasangh and Maratha Kranti
Morcha in the post -reform market economy, where “land lost its productive
capacity” (Kalaiyarasan, 2022) are examples of perceived backwardness
fuelling collective action i.e. the “effect of relative deprivation condition on
protest.” (Institute of Citizenship Studies, 2016) The victory of protests by
Samyukta Kisan Morcha and A ll India Kisan Sangharsh Coordination
Committee grouping of farmer’s and landless labourer’s organisations in
the repeal of the three liberalising farm bills 2in 2021 has larger implications
beyond electoral politics. It bears imprints of the World Trade
Organisation’s (WTO) Uruguay Agreement on Agriculture (1995) on
India’s official stand on the Domestic Support Regime. India and other G -
20 developing nations favour the provision of agricultural subsidies, in case
2 Farmers' Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Bill, 2020;
Farmers (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement on Price Assurance and
Farm Services Bill, 20 20; and Essential Commodities (Amendment) Bill , 2020 munotes.in
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34 Civil Society and Democracy
34 of India for internal food security and Mi nimum Support Price (MSP) to
farmers. These greatly affect the domestic agricultural market and the
global agrarian economy. The prevention of NGOs from 50 countries in the
World Trade Organization (WTO) Ministerial Conference in June 12, 2022
reminds one of the Battle of Seattle, 1999. Thousands of activists, Peoples
Campaign against WTO from India, peacefully braved police brutality for
trying to shut down the Ministerial Conference at Seattle calling its free trade
neoliberal agenda as undemocratic, har mful to workers’ rights, the
environment and indigenous peoples. (DemocracyNow.org, 2019)
According to Adam Smith, “joint -stock corporations and trade unions
undermine the morality and psychological conditioning of markets.”
(Calhoun, 2011) With the advent of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th and
the First World War (1913 – 1918) the growing demands of perpetual
manufacturing assembly lines led to the widespread employment of women
and child l abour. The worsening working and living conditions finds
mention in many English classics. The narrow scope of 1832 Reform
Act gave birth to the Chartist Movement led by the working class in the UK
demanding civil political rights. The Haymarket Massacre i n Chicago, 1886
fuelled the May Day protests by the Federation of Organized Trades and
Labour Unions (FOTLU) now the American Federation of Labour . It bore
fruit in the US Fair Labor Standards Act of 1937 that formalised an eight
hours’ work day. The effor ts of Second International (1881 – 1920) a
collective of trade unions and socialist political parties, and the International
Labour Organisation (1919) through its various resolutions have
strengthened workers’ rights around the world. In India, Swadeshi M itra
Mandal and Friends of Labourers Society were among a few self -help
organisations that grew up around trade unions in industrialised cities.
(Chandhoke, 2012) Governments intervene to “make markets perform for
the publi c good by way of forming a central bank to insure financial
stability,” (Calhoun, 2011) fundamental rights,3 centralised economic
planning (Five Year Plans), prohibition laws4, legislations for market
regulations (MRTP, 1966 & SEBI, 1992), rights based legislations
(MGNREGA, 2005), etc. The contributions of civil society organisations
like the Mazdoor Kisan Shakti Sangathan (MKSS), Arun Roy led workers
and farmers organisation in the pursuit of government accountability and
expansion of legal rights in the form of Right to Information Act, 2005 and
the right to work via Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act, 2005 are much celebrated. The empowerment that RTI has
given to scores of civil society and rights activi sts is immeasurable. State
may also intervene in industrial disputes, notably the great strike of 1982 -
83. The Bombay Textile Labour Union against the Bombay mill owners is
like the David and Goliath battle, a bittersweet reminder of Mumbai’s class
composi tions, infectiveness of labour laws, and perennial issues of
affordable housing and rehabilitation. (Lieten, 1982) (Finkelstein, 2019)
The victory of Tamil Nadu Textile and Common Labour Union (TT CU) of
3 Articles 23, 24, 38, 39, 41, 42 and 43 of the Constitution of India , 1950 ensure
welfare of workers.
4 Bihar Prohibition and Excise Act, 2016 was a result of mass mobilisation of
battered women . munotes.in
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35 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions mainly Dalit workers in getting the Dindigul Agreement (2021) also throws
light on ground realities despite passage of Sexual Harassment of Women
at Work Place (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 . (Cohen,
2022) The changes in the unorganised sector, particularly the rise of the gig
economy and online platform based services have been a testament to
insecurity and precarious nature of work in the present stage of capitalism.
Ulka Bhattacharya and Soumya Jha asses s the impact of trade unions like
All India Gig Workers Union (AIGWU) on diversifying representation of
workers around the world but also the passage of social security legislations
like the California AB5 law that entitles independent contractors as
‘empl oyee’ status . (Jha, 2022) Thus organs like trade unions, chambers of
commerce, farmers and peasant organisations, consumer protection
associations are valuable civil society entities that raise crucial issues that
may be overlo oked by the invisible hands of the market and the too large to
fail companies and banks. Civil society organisation work to create public
opinion on grave issues that have huge ramifications for people, economy,
and ecology alike. For example on the ever w idening global wealth gap
(Occupy Wall Street Movement), progressive taxation (Millionaires for
Humanity), market adjustment for health promotion (Jakarta Declaration,
1997, WHO’s Access to COVID -19 Tools (ACT) Accelerator) dangers of
the anthropocene5 and climate justice (Greenpeace International, Fridays
for future), sustainable development (SDGs), green economy and Extended
producer responsibility (EPR) (European Circular Economy
Stakeholder Platform).
Barber proposes democratizing both production and consumption in the
global economy, making corporations more responsible to the common
good and protecting the environment, etc. as areas for state action. The
Government of India passing the Companies Act, 2013 providing for
mandatory Corporate Social Resp onsibility (CSR) can be seen in this light.
There is a clear influence of the Gandhian concept of Trusteeship. A huge
number of companies have created foundations that tie up with dedicated
grass -roots NGOs for the implementation of CSR, to give back to th e place
that provides them with natural resources and human capital. A Palestinian
civil society organisation led Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS)
movement since 2005 has been urging corporations and nations to act
against Israel for its illegal occ upation via settler colonialism. It suggests
economic actions on the lines of anti -apartheid sanctions used against South
Africa and seeks support for a unified Palestine. (Thrall, 2018) The US ice -
cream maker Ben & Jerry's decision to stop selling their product in occupied
territories in 2021 is a recent example. The impacts of animal rights
organisations like People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) in
bringing about prohibition on animal testing of products and p romotion of
ethical fashion are well known. However some nations like Japan and
Iceland cite traditional reasons for its continuation of commercial whaling.
As per the Human Development Report 2021 -22, globally even before the
Covid -19 pandemic “six out o f seven people felt insecure.” ((UNDP),
5 Refers to the present geological epoch wherein human activity has been the
dominant influence on climate and the environment (Crutzen, 2000) . munotes.in
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36 Civil Society and Democracy
36 2021 -22) Political conflict, rising global cost of living crisis and incidences
of unemployment are variables that may considerably threaten civil
society’s “civility” and rate of partici pation, as one is bothered about their
means of survival. The 2022 violent protests in north India by government
job aspirants are fresh in memory. The export policies of major grain
suppliers may trigger food insecurity, shortage and food riots in depende nt
nations. (Galani, 2022) In this light the 2022 Russia - Ukraine war sent the
world economy on a tailspin just like the Yom Kippur war created the oil
crisis in 1973. (Ghosh, 2022) (Stork, Nov., 1974) Thus an array of civil
society organisations, humanitarian intervention, anti -nuclear weapons
ones to conflict resolution ones have been calling for ceasefire be it in
Ukraine, Tigray - Ethiopia or long forgotten Yemen. (OCHA, 2022) These
systemic issues, inequalities, exploitation, hoarding of opportunities,
accumulation by dispossession (Harvey, 2004) and disproportionate returns
to factors of production are so me of the major driving forces for civil society
organisations to intervene in the sphere of market.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Note: Use the space given below for your answer.
Q.4. What are some instances when civil society organisations
intervene in markets?
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3.6 LET US SUM UP
• Civil society is “the sphere of un -coerced human association between
the individual and the state, in which people undertake collective
action for normative and substantive purposes, relatively independe nt
of government and the market,” lays emphasis on the voluntary nature
of civil society organisations’ formation and the possible areas of
actions. (Walzer, 1998)
• Some necessary pre -conditions for civil society are constitutionally
guaranteed liberties to people, adequate social security measures or
grievance redressal mechanisms.
• Common civil society organisations are religious, philanthropic/
charity based, scientific and literary societies, the press, trade unions,
rights based organisations, new electr onic and television media, Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) or Non -Party Political
Formulations (NPPFs), global civil society organisations, Community
Based Organisations (CBOs), Self -Help Groups (SHGs), social munotes.in
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37 Spaces of Civil Society Organisation’s Actions enterprise and social entrepreneurs, Nei ghbourhood Associations,
Grassroots associations, Voluntary Agencies (VAs) and sporadic
civic movements.
• The major areas or spaces of action undertaken by CSOs can be
understood using Benjamin Barber’s categorisation of civil society
into: libertarian, com munitarian and strong democracy model.
(Barber, 1998)
• Religious institutions as players in civil society may strive to maintain
or challenge the status quo, aide in consolidation of state power,
influence policy formulation o r stall them. There are also reformists
and secular civil society organisations that seek to undo the wrongs
inflicted by the orthodoxy and state on the individual.
• Media being the fourth estate talks truth to power, moulds active
citizens, instil respect for rule of law, promote universal access to civil
liberties, and generate awareness on the state of affairs of public
health, education, finance, environment, war and peace efforts.
• Markets structure, regulations, morality, inclusivity, good practices,
redistribution, socio -political and environmental justice are spaces for
civil society actors.
• Threats to civil society are incivility and end of work. (Barber, 1998)
“State alone can create conditions that are necessary to protect the
institutions of civil society.” (Mahajan, 1999) The solution lies in
broadening the public sphere for more civic participation, inclusivity,
deliberations, and empowerment.
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43 4
ISSUES IN GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY
Unit Structure
4.1 Human Security
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 The Concept of Human Security
4.1.3 Features of Human Security
4.1.4 Pillars of Human Security
4.2 Humanitarian Issues
4.2.1 Causes of Humanitarian Issues
4.2.2 The Impact of Humanitarian Crises
4.2.3 Humanitarian activities of the UN and Global Civil Society
4.3 Democratisation Movement
4.3.1 Meaning of Democratisation Movement
4.3.2 The Role of Global Civil Society in Democratisation Movement
4.4 Summary
4.5 Exercise
4.6 References
4.1 HUMAN SECURITY
4.1.1 Introduction
The concept of a global civil society implies that it exists above local,
regional and national societies. Despit e the fact that elements of the
supranational and non -governmental sphere had existed before, the number
and scope of activities of international and supranational institutions and
organisations, as well as individual and group aspirations to solve problem s
and issues without the participation or mediation of states, became new
towards the end of 90s.and early 20s
The emergence of a global civil society and the increasing recourse by
governments to multilateral negotiations and to work with international
organizations raises the question of the democratic representation of civil
society and the mechanisms for its participation in political processes at the
global level. Such negotiations allow states to pursue a joint policy that
would not be approved by soc iety. Therefore the way out of this situation is
the participation of civil society of any state directly in the international
political process, its conduct of "World Civil Policy", which implies the
existence of a global society of citizens. The definiti on of such a civil
society can include three aspects: munotes.in
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44 Civil Society and Democracy
44 • The public sphere should be protected from government interference,
and civil society should have a certain degree of autonomy from the
state;
• There must be a commonality of core values and a certain degree of
identity;
• The formation of interstate groups and their network interaction
should become a characteristic of such a society.
4.1.2 The Concept of Human Security
The concept of “Human security” is defined as freedom from fear and
freedom from wan t. It is a necessary prerequisite for human development,
which is the goal of cooperation for development. The goal of development
is to enable people to live long and healthy lives (health), continuously
acquire new knowledge (education) and have access t o resources to ensure
a decent standard of living (material well -being). If human development
aims at empowerment, then the concept of human security seeks ways to
avoid threats, mitigate them and deal with them.
Human security is aimed at overcoming two types of threats:
• Chronic internal threats to security, such as hunger, disease, violence
against women;
• Sudden and painful changes, such as the aftermath of conflict, natural
disasters, sudden economic collapse.
International terrorism, environmental poll ution and dangerous
transboundary diseases, as well as the approaches and priorities needed to
besiege them; there is a consensus that its effective approach can only be
achieved only within a framework of cooperation and coordination between
Governments o f countries as well as other partners, including global civil
society actors.
There were conflicting definitions that focused on studying the concept of
civil society, but many of them proceeded to consider it as a group of bodies
and organizations that ar e not subject to the tutelage of the state and its
institutions; which undertake a number of tasks related to the legal, social,
cultural and intellectual fields. Internationally it can be said that civil society
consists of voluntary and independent bodie s consisting in turn of natural
persons or a group of associations of different countries and nationalities.
They are subject to the internal law of countries even though they carry out
their tasks in different regions of the world for example Amnesty
International; International Organization of the Red Cross and Red
Crescent; Doctors without borders etc.
Jurisprudence and practice have set out a set of standards that frame the
work of global civil society; such as the international character of the
bodies, which requires the presence of representations of persons or civil
bodies from at least three countries; In terms of its field of operation munotes.in
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45 Issues in Global Civil Society internationally and not within a specific country; As well as the association
of the establishment with a private a nd independent initiative and from
international non -governmental bodies.
However, during the last quarter century, the idea of "human security" has
been accepted by various actors responsible for global governance such as
international organizations, ci vil society and non -governmental
organizations (NGOs). It has come to be in practiced in various fields such
as international cooperation, development assistance, peace building, and
humanitarian assistance. The idea of protecting people from threats to
human life, life and dignity such as conflicts, disasters and poverty and
improving individual abilities by improving food, water, medical care and
education to eliminate the threat of fear and deficiency.
This diplomatic concept extends the concept of sec urity from the national
level to individuals and communities, with the aim of ensuring a dignified
life that includes not only physical security but also mental well -being.
There are various theories about the origin of "human security", but it was
first p ublicly taken up in the "Human Development Report" published by
the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in 1994. According to
the report, the concept of security is like "national security from attacks by
other countries", "securing national interest s in foreign policy" or
"international security from the threat of nuclear war". In addition, it has
been narrowly interpreted for a long time as being related to the nation, not
to each individual human being.1 Therefore, The Concept of Human
Security was first appeared in the Human Development Report of 1994 in
the United Nations Development Program
In 2001, the "Human Security Committee" was established, which gathered
12 experts from around the world, and won the Nobel Prize for Sadako
Ogata, who was a UN High Commissioner for Refugees, and Co -chaired by
an Indian economist Amartya Sen, who submitted the final report to the UN
Secretary -General in 2003 Finally in 2012, the UN General Assembly
unanimously adopted a resolution emphasizing Human Security.
In the real world of international politics, "National Security" is the most
important high -level issue (high politics), and economic and welfare issues
are low -priority low -level issues (low politics). Given the horrific total war
that took place in World War II, it was inevitable that ensuring the survival
of the nation became a top priority during the Cold War, which was next to
the threat of such wars.
Looking at developing countries which have not received much attention
before, the general public in t heir daily lives are sick, hungry, poverty
continues, crime and conflict arises every day, political oppression, and
environmental destruction are some of the major concerns. Therefore, the
concept of security must change immediately from "inclusive nation al
1 Human Development Report 1994
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46 Civil Society and Democracy
46 security to people's security" and "from military security to sustainable
human development".
4.1.3 Features of Human Security
The concept of human security is one of the basic needs of the soul, and in
its general sense it is the reassurance that results from trust and human
security from poverty, deprivation, fear and violence. Despite the
importance of the concept of state security, it is not sufficient to achieve the
security of individuals; therefore, the concept of human security has
developed due to the development of societies and the increase in internal
and external threats, which required focus and attention to the human being
as an active and influential individual in society
• A comprehensive concept that includes all countries of the worl d with
all their capabilities, given the common external threats that affect
individuals everywhere, such as terrorism and drugs. Therefore, any
transgression that affects the security of people requires the
intervention of all countries to stop it and pre vent its recurrence.
• It is concerned with the security of people and the circumstances
related to each person in order to achieve social justice, as it moves
away from military solutions to solve problems and focuses on
attention to individuals and human development.
• The most important slogan for human security is prevention is better
than cure, so care is taken to avoid problems and solve them before
they escalate, thus avoiding conflicts between individuals in the same
society.
4.1.4 Pillars of Human Se curity
• Economic Security: It includes the importance of providing an income
commensurate with the needs of the people in order to secure
adequate housing and a decent life for them, securing job
opportunities commensurate with the competencies, and ensurin g the
achievement of social justice through
• Environmental Security: Protecting people from environmental
damage caused by wrong practices by the person himself or by the
state, and preserving environmental resources.
• Health security: that adequate, neces sary and basic health care is
available to all individuals, and preventive measures are taken to limit
the spread of diseases.
• Personal Security: Protecting a person from all threats that may
expose him to physical or psychological harm from outside or fro m
the state or from individuals within it.
• Community security: the individual's sense of belonging to the
community, by ensuring the integrity of social relations and
protection from national, religious or ethnic fanaticism. munotes.in
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47 Issues in Global Civil Society • Political Security: Respectin g the human right to express his opinion
and protecting him from the repression he may face.
• Participation: Solutions are based on the identified needs of people,
so they reach people effectively.
• Safety Capability Factor: Human security strengthens local
communities, the ability of individuals to influence change and other
factors that build resilience.
• Individual Solutions: Human security respects cultural diversity in
achieving goals.
• Objectivity and Subjectivity: Human security works with objective
security and tangible subjective security. Both types affect the
behavior and ability of a population or individual to participate in
development. Both deserve serious consideration.
4.2 HUMANITARIAN ISS UES
We live in a world that does not recognize borders, a world whose main
advantage is change and evolution and strangely enough anything that
happens in one part of the world affects the whole planet positively or
negatively and any local variables increasingly interact with and influence
the whole global cont ext. This has created contemporary issues of global
dimensions, issues that no country can solve alone called Humanitarian
Issues.
Humanitarian crises threaten the lives of millions of people in many
countries around the world, such as Syria, Yemen, Bangla desh, Venezuela,
South Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. All these triggered
by events such as natural disasters, civil wars or epidemics, humanitarian
crises are characterized by endangering the health, well -being and security
of a large gro up of people.
There is no unified definition of humanitarian issues. Humanitarian issues
are usually endangered in the long run by one or more events such as access
to water, food, shelter, healthcare, education from the part of the country's
population.
4.2.1 Causes of Humanitarian Issues
The number one cause of humanitarian issues is fierce conflicts such as war,
natural disasters such as hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis, as well as
extreme weather events and droughts such as "El Nino" can also lead to
humanitarian crises.
Three types of humanitarian crises:
1. Artificial crisis: Examples of man -made crises are armed conflict,
nuclear disasters, train and plane accidents. munotes.in
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48 Civil Society and Democracy
48 2. Disasters related to natural disasters: Geophysics in nature
(earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, etc.) Natural meteorology
(e.g. storms, hurricanes, typhoons) Hydrological in nature (e.g.
floods, floods) Climate type (drought, forest fire, etc.) Biological
properties (e.g. epidemic, pest epidemic).
3. Complex emergencies: It often indicates a combination of man -made
and natural disasters and can be characterized by widespread
violence, consequent deaths, serious economic and social damage,
community migration, and difficult situations of humanitarian
assistance. Often Othe r factors also contribute to the emergence of
humanitarian crises and can experience dramatic deterioration as they
progress for example countries affected economic and social system,
extreme poverty, lack of access to food and water, repressive political
system, with poor education and Urbanization.
4.2.2 The Impact of Humanitarian Crises
The consequences of humanitarian crises are diverse and mostly threaten
the lives of the population in the affected areas. In addition to the people
who lose their live s as a direct result of a natural disaster or war, many
people are threatened by the medium - and long -term effects of the crises
long after the event and are dependent on international help and support to
survive. For 2020, the Global Humanitarian Overview (GHO) lists a record
168 million people in need of humanitarian assistance around the world.2
• Hungers a consequence of humanitarian crises: For example, natural
disasters such as droughts or locust plagues, as is currently the case in
Africa, can destroy crops or the displacement of people due to violent
conflicts can mean that fields can no longer be cultivated. In addition,
there are many other causes of global hunger, which in itself
constitutes a humanitarian emergency. The Global Hunger Index
(GHI) sh ows that the number of people suffering from hunger
worldwide rose from 785 million in 2015 to 822 million in 2018.
Women and children in particular are affected by malnutrition.
Improved access to health care has almost halved child deaths since
2000. 3
• Civil wars usually result in the destruction of the infrastructure of the
affected countries, which in turn can lead to the collapse of the
economic system, lack of access to food, drinking water, facilities
such as hospitals and schools or increasing pover ty. Due to the lack
of education and the lack of prospects, the political situation often
remains unstable and the country vulnerable to further crises.
• Many humanitarian crises are still characterized by flight and
expulsion. After the violent persecutio n of the Rohingya ethnic group
in Myanmar in the summer of 2017, for example, hundreds of
2 Global Humanitarian Overview 2022 Published on 2 Dec 2021
3 2019 GLOBAL HUNGER INDEX THE CHALLENGE OF HUNGER AND
CLIMATE CHANGE munotes.in
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49 Issues in Global Civil Society thousands fled to neighboring Bangladesh, where around 860,000
people are now living together in a cramped space under catastrophic
conditions in refugee camps near C ox's Bazar.4 A lack of hygiene,
poor access to clean water, food and medical care pose a constant
threat to many people in camps and on the run. These desolate
conditions are by no means limited to countries in the global south,
currently there are refugee camps in Greece as well as in Moria on the
island of Lesvos housed people in appalling conditions.
4.2.3 Humanitarian activities of the UN and Global Civil Society
Many present the UN as an organization primarily concerned with the
maintenance of peace an d security. In fact, less than 30% of the UN's work
is devoted to this, and most of its work is related to development and
humanitarian assistance.
The UN system, as the only global institution to promote the development
of the poorest areas of the world, through its special programs helps to
improve the lives of millions of people.
Through these programs, the UN system provides over $25 billion in
assistance to approximately 135 countries annually: about $5 billion in
grants and over $20 billion in loans.5 The organization provides assistance
to refugees, the poor and the hungry, promotes the survival of children,
environmental protection, the fight against crime and drug trafficking, the
protection of human rights, women's equality and democracy.
UN resour ces are targeted primarily at the countries and peoples most in
need of assistance. The UN is often seen as the main source of technical and
financial assistance for many states.
In the event of a disaster - military conflict, floods, earthquakes, droughts ,
crop failures, and epidemics - the UN operational agencies immediately
take measures to provide assistance to the affected population. UN Special
Relief Units, in close cooperation with humanitarian non -governmental
organizations, urgently deliver the ne cessary resources (mainly for children,
women and the elderly) - food and medicine, provide them with shelter and
provide logistical support. In 1997 -1998 the UN has assisted 51 Member
States in their efforts to deal with more than 77 natural and environme ntal
disasters.
The United Nations coordinates its response to humanitarian crises through
an ad hoc committee that brings together all key humanitarian actors which
is chaired by the United Nations Emergency Relief Coordinator. Also
represented on the com mittee are the
• World Health Organization (WHO),
• The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and
4 https://www.unfpa.org/
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50 Civil Society and Democracy
50 • Major intergovernmental and non -governmental humanitarian
organizations.
The Emergency Relief Coordinator works for developing humanitarian
policy on time to time and drawing attention to humanitarian issues, raising
public awareness, in particular about the consequences of the proliferation
of small arms or the humanitarian consequences of sanctions among the
countries.
It is notable worldwi de that, the countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America
need humanitarian aid. The countries of the Middle East and Europe are less
covered by the activities of humanitarian societies. The United Nations
operates through its agencies, such as the Save the Children Fund
(UNICEF). Aid is provided by government agencies and sent directly to
countries in need. The other part of government funds goes through the UN
and organizations such as the World Bank, which is the largest distributor
of financial aid. Supp ort is provided by voluntary agencies such as Action
Aid and Christian Aid.
Most humanitarian organizations have two main goals: providing
emergency assistance to people affected by disasters or war and long -term
assistance to those in need. These are food , shelter, clean water, education
and health care. These organizations aim to help people improve their living
conditions by providing them with training, tools and equipment to improve
agriculture and water supply. They also teach people to read and write .
Some European and North American organizations carry out educational
work among the citizens of their own countries, explaining the causes of
poverty and hardship in developing countries. International Committee of
the Red Cross (ICRC) is a humanitarian organization operating throughout
the world on the basis of the principle of neutrality and impartiality. It
provides protection and assistance to victims of armed conflict and internal
unrest. The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) directs its effor ts to
meet the needs of children in crisis situations. Despite the attempts of many
humanitarian actors to initiate meetings and create mechanisms to improve
mutual understanding and develop a common position, organizations
providing humanitarian assistanc e remain diverse and there is a huge
variation in the perceptions of humanitarian action.
4.3 DEMOCRATISATION MOVEMENT
4.3.1 Meaning of Democratisation Movement
Democratization can be considered as a phenomenon limited by the
framework of a single state. Simplifying the complex processes of regime
transformation, we can say that such a set of changes in the political sphere
leads to the institutionalization of ope n competition for the right to control
the government. In addition, democratization implies the recognition,
together with institutional support, of broad rights and freedoms for the
citizens of a given state to increase their political participation, as w ell as munotes.in
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51 Issues in Global Civil Society free elections, the results of which determine (directly or indirectly) the
composition of the government
Due to the geopolitical and geo -economic dimension of the modern world,
increased international tension, the emergence of regional armed confli cts,
migration processes, more frequent natural and man -made disasters,
international terrorism require the introduction of new levers and means of
regulating international relations. In recent years, international non -
governmental organizations (INGOs) ha ve become the most important actor
in world politics, which can be described as a global civil society.
There was even a term “cosmopolitan democracy” (N. Bobbio, D.
Archibugi), which implies a cosmopolitan worldview of citizens and the
displacement of th e state from the sphere of social regulation. Great power
claims to world hegemony breed instability, insecurity and vulnerability of
other states. To strengthen the democratization of global governance, a
convergence of global civil society and national p olicies is needed.
The increasingly evident inability of the governments of the most powerful
states to get out of the perverse spiral (or dead end if you prefer) terrorism -
war-poverty -pollution -discrimination -exclusion; on the other hand, to
focus on a more organic coordination of the forces of global civil society
and to create synergies, in particular between those who have developed an
organic reflection on the subject of world order and the UN and are actively
engaged on the institutional path to pea ce.
4.3.2 The Role of Global Civil Society in Democratisation Movement
The role of global civil society in the international arena and the possible
consequences of such an increase in the influence of INGOs are because of
increasing insecurity and vulnerab ility of other states. To strengthen the
democratization of global governance, a convergence of global civil society
and national policies is needed.
The main task of INGOs is to maintain stability in the world. The need for
the existence of a global mana gement system is obvious, as evidenced by
the growing global problems: the crisis of the economies of the countries of
the world "periphery", the global environmental crisis, manipulation of
internal democratic processes from outside, international terrori sm, lack of
control of global financial markets by existing political institutions. It is no
coincidence that the idea of a world government represented by the
Bilderberg Club, an informal annual conference of the most influential
politicians, businessmen and heads of some media, is popular among
supporters of conspiracy theories.6
Currently, a new system of global governance is being formed in the form
of international supranational structures, whose functions include solving
urgent transnational problems . The main factor in world politics and the
source of conflicts will not be differences in civilizational values (as S.
6 What is the Bilderberg Group and are its members really plotting the New World
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52 Civil Society and Democracy
52 Huntington argued), but the upholding by nation -states of their divergent
economic and political interests can be.
Civil society creates conditions for the social strengthening of nation -states
in the context of a globalizing economy. A high level of civil society activity
can contribute to the formation of strong political coalitions at the national
level. These coalitions are being forme d to push nation -states towards
individual action to resist the demands of transnational industrial capital and
negotiate a global regulatory framework for private economic activity. In
the future, a confrontation between economic globalization and global civil
society is inevitable. Simultaneously with the official meetings of the
leaders of the strongest states, the so -called parallel summits are held. Their
number is constantly growing. Parallel summits are organized by various
groupings of the global ci vil society; they are international and independent
of the state. They discuss the same issues as the official summits, inform
the public and formulate alternative proposals. Global civil society is called
upon to make political institutions more responsib le.
Therefore the global civil society deals with issues of global importance,
involving in cross -border communication, its activities are based on the
premise of supra -territorial solidarity. The global civil society is creating a
system of universal lega l norms and a system of governance that can
implement these norms in life and overcome, if necessary, the resistance of
nation -states. Global civil society shapes and promotes new values and
norms that can resist traditional state authorities and new forms of global
governance. INGOs and social movements as actors of the global civil
society are developing new ways to solve the global problems of our time
and participate in the democratization of the world.
4.4 SUMMARY
Today it is possible to speak of a “ global civil society” only as a plurality
of civil society organizations at all levels on a global scale. At the same
time, we do not deny the possibility of the process of globalization of civil
society as the birth of a single global organism, but we can only talk about
this in the sense that we are dealing only with the origins of this complex,
very long and contradictory process.
Global civil society emerged as the key social force in counteracting the
attack on the social sphere and democracy by the in stitutions of corporate
globalization in the last decade of the 20th century. Thus, in the context of
globalization, there is no clear answer: what will civil society be like in the
future.
It can be assumed that the strengthening of global civil society and its ability
to solve key global problems depends on a number of variables, which
include:
• The relative capacities of various social forces and the related fact of
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53 Issues in Global Civil Society • The extent to which they can use modern communication
technologies;
• The strength of the state and intergovernmental organizations,
including their ability to deter international criminal activity, and
• The ability of the world community to recognize the pos sibility of the
existence of different types of societies without each of them losing
its individuality
Hence, we have a clear understanding that society should not only preserve,
but also develop various levels of associative activity, since individual
individuals and groups have always been looking for and will continue to
look for ways and forms that provide them with both horizontal and vertical
mobility for the implementation of their non -political and political interests.
4.5 EXERCISE
1. What is the meaning of Global Civil Society?
2. What do you understand by Human Security? Write its Features.
3. Elaborate the Pillars of Human Security.
4. Explain Humanitarian issues and its causes.
5. Comment on the impact of Humanitarian Crises.
6. Discuss Humanitarian activities of UN and Global Civil Society with
Examples.
7. Write the role of Global Civil Society in Democratisation Movement.
8. Summarise various Issues in Global Civil Society.
4.6 REFERENCES AND READI NG MATERIAL
1. Globalization, the Ci ty and Civil Society in Pacific Asia: The Social
Production of Civic Spaces. (2007). (n.p.): Taylor & Francis.
2. Keane, J. (2003). Global Civil Society?. United
Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
3. Kaldor, M. (2013). Global Civil Society: An Answer to
War. Germany: Polity Press.
4. Civil Society in Democratization. (2004). United Kingdom: Taylor &
Francis.
5. Critical Mass: The Emergence of Global Civil
Society. (2008). Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
6. What is the Bilderberg Group and are it s members really plotting the
New World Order? Published on 28 May 2019 munotes.in
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54 Civil Society and Democracy
54 7. Human Development Report 1994
8. Global Humanitarian Overview 2022 Published on 2 Dec 2021
9. 2019 Global Hunger Index The Challenge Of Hunger And Climate
Change
10. https://www.unfpa.org/
11. https://www.un.org/en/our -work/deliver -humanitarian -aid
12. https://www.malteser -international.org/en.html
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