113-M.-A.-Public-Relations-SEM-1-PR-Theory-and-Practice-munotes

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PUBLICS, RELATIONSHIPS AND SOCIAL
EXCHANGE THEORY
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Public Relations: A misunderstood field
1.2.1 Public Relations definitions
1.2.2 Importance of PR
1.3 What is Publics in PR
1.3.1 Types of Publics
1.3.2 Factors aiding growth of PR
1.4 Functions of a PR practitioner
1.5 Importance of Relationships in Public Relations
1.5.1 Characteristics of a mutually beneficial relationship
1.5.2 Types of relationships in Public Relations
1.6 Social Exchange Theory
1.6.1 History of the social exchange theory
1.7 Advantages and Disad vantages of PR
1.8 Let’s sum up
1.9 Questions
1.10 References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit is designed to introduce you to the basics of Public Relations,
under mass communication and help you clear your misunderstandings of
what Public Relations actually is as a field. After having studied this unit,
you should be able to
1. Define Public Relations and its meaning
2. Outline reasons for it being a misunderstood field
3. Describe the importance of 'publics' in PR
4. Compare and contrast types of publics
5. Ascertain factors that are helping the field of Public Relations
6. Discuss the function of the PR practitioner munotes.in

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2 Public Relations Theory and Practice
2 7. Classify types of relationships and their importance in Public
Relations.
8. Evaluate the overall importance of Public Relations in the field of
mass communication.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Public Relations has been around for quite some time now but has genuinely
begun approaching a professional status lately. In 1982, the International
Public Relations Association, which consisted of PR professionals from
around the world, released a 'Gold paper', proposing a model for Public
Relations education. The paper sought to teach Public Relations in an
educational institute with an academic and professional emphasis on social
science.
In today's globalized world, a b oost in the adoption of the internet of things
(IoT), technological advancement and sophisticated means to target a
particular audience have increased the demand for Public Relations
professionals.
Public Relations comes under the broader umbrella of Mass
Communications, just like Marketing, Journalism, Electronic Media, etc.
It is not just seen as a professional practice but is also an academic field
with its own theories and foundation. Before we dive into the ocean of
Public Relations and try to figure out our what’s and how’s, it is imperative
to have clarity of our basic concepts. A quick revision will help strengthen
our basic foundation of the topic before building upon it in the following
chapters. To understand Public Relations, we need to know wha t 'Mass
communication' is. In simple terms, mass communication means
exchanging information ideas via any medium with a large audience,
usually done to inform, educate, entertain, and persuade people/ Audiences.
At the same time, public relation is strateg ic communication done for a
mutually beneficial relationship .
1.2 PR: A MISUNDERSTOOD FIELD
A common misunderstanding among youth about this field is that people
think PR is just about being a pleasant fellow or simply doing publicity,
lobbying or runn ing propaganda. But the lesser -known truth is that it goes
beyond all of the activities mentioned above. Today, Public Relations has
made great strides with sophistication, responsibility, ethics and plays a
considerable role in maintaining peace in societ y.
Some consider it the same as Journalism, which is not true. It is different
from journalism in many aspects. PR serves a client or an organization while
a journalist serves the public, society. Although in both the professions
intensive research, wri ting and editing is involved, but the motive of doing
so differs. A PR professional research with an intention to understand
perceptions people, or a political climate or for other concerns related to the
organization of the client they represent. Whereas a journalist does this munotes.in

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3 Publics, Relationships and Social Exchange Theory research to support his facts, give voices to people’s opinions. Due to their
nature of the job both the professions meet on some platforms but engage
with people in an unusual way.
1.2.1 Public Relations definition
There are more than 600 standard and acceptable definitions of Public
Relations out there. But not all are 'standard and acceptable', but with many
more emerging definitions, it is clear how important this field is to
practitioners, researchers, and scholars. Public Rel ations is practiced by
someone who is a PR head in a significant corporation having more than
100 employees or someone who is a part -time employee. It can be someone
preparing brochures and helping make press releases to keep the public
aware of the latest developments. A Public Relations practitioner is
primarily involved in writing press releases, stories for an employee
publication, public service announcements or informational pamphlets.
Anyone managing such people, setting up meetings with management o r
dealing with the press is also a Public Relations practitioner. Such
individuals may draw pay checks from various institutes, whichever they
decide to work for, ranging from business, government NGOs, hospitals,
churches. Therefore, it isn't straightforw ard to develop one definition that
can encompass such dimensions of Public Relations.
Definitions
"PR is the management function that identifies, establishes, and maintains
mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the various
publics on whom its success or failure depends." - Cutlip, Center and
Broom, Effective Public Relations (7t h ed., 1994)
Public Relations exist to help an organization achieve its goals by ensuring
that the right public thinks the right thing." - Simon Moore, An Invitation
to Public Relations (1996)
"PR is the activities and attitudes intended to analyze, adjust to, influence,
and direct the opinion of any group or groups of persons in the interest of
any individual, group, or institution." - Richard Weiner, Dictionary of media
and communications (1990)
Edward L. Bernays, the doyen of Public Relations in the USA, defines it as
"the attempt by information, persuasion and adjustment to engineer public
support for an activity, cause, movement or institution."
1.2.2 Importance of PR
Although all the definitions range from more straightforward to complex
ideas, they al l point towards one direction, i.e., deliberate use of actions to
influence opinions and persuade others by securing people's acceptance
towards the cause. Public Relations practices are not restricted within the
corporate framework or context. It is used in our society and day to day life
at various levels by the government, community, social institutions,
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4 Public Relations Theory and Practice
4 1. Public Relations actions are to be focused on achieving positive ends.
2. All efforts must take place in an organized manner.
3. The actions must get clearly communicated to the target publics
4. All actions must have an end goal that it tries to achieve. E.g., building
a favorable image of a celebrity or brand.
5. Overall, all Public Re lations actions are aimed towards achieving a
good social atmosphere for an organization
1.3 PUBLICS IN PR
We learned so far that Public Relations is seen as a positive force in society
that benefits not only an organization but also its publics.
Whenever one reads any definition of Public Relations, nearly 90% of all
the descriptions use the term 'publics'. Now the concept of publics does not
exist in conventional grammar. But in the field of Public Relations, the term
exists as jargon.
According to sociol ogist Herbert Blumer, the difference between publics
and masses is that the latter is a heterogeneous group, whereas the former
is homogenous. People make up mass not because they have something in
common, but publics, on the other hand, have something in common that
could be an issue or a problem.
According to Blumer, a public is a group of people who
1. impacted by an issue
2. may have varied ideas to deal with an issue
3. engage in discussion over an issue.
Meanwhile, philosopher John Dewy defines publics in a somewhat
equivalent manner. According to him, publics means
1. People facing similar problems
2. They believe that the problem exists
3. Take action to resolve an issue.
In conclusion, both explanations suggest that the public consists of
individuals who detect a problem and may behave similarly without ever
meeting face to face. For example, environmentalists may react similarly to
a proposal to clear a part of the forest cover to build real estate, even though
they may never formally meet each other. Such publics may have learned
about such a decision by the government or a company via mass media.
Other environmentalists can meet face to face and organize some action.
Either way, the public functions as a single system because they face the
same problem and want a similar outcome. Thus, it is safe to say that the
public is a loosely structured group that detects a problem and behaves as
though they are one body to resolve an issue. One of the key things to note munotes.in

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5 Publics, Relationships and Social Exchange Theory is that consequences, concerns, and problems create 'publics', and the
presence of publics makes a Public Relations problem for the organization.
For example, let's say a metal factory at the banks of river Yamuna is letting
its untreated waste in the water body. People facing the consequences of
Yamuna pollution will approach the factory's organization to discuss the
problem and even organize an activist group to confront the mill owner.
Now without the pollution, th ere would have been no public. The presence
of the public creates a Public Relations problem. In such a situation, the
functions of a Public Relations professional will be discussed in the
following unit.
1.3.1 Types of Publics
John Dewy identified three t ypes of publics. The first type is a 'non -public'
because there are no consequences for this group. Until the public does not
recognize the problem, they are considered latent public. Once the problem
is identified, it becomes public. When the public takes action over an issue,
they are an active public. Understanding the types of public one is dealing
with is necessary to take appropriate action to resolve an issue. After seeing
how the type of action taken may characterise a public in many ways,
Dewey cat egorised the general public into three primary divisions. These
divisions comprised the Latent Publics, Aware Publics, and Active Publics.
The activities that take place inside each group make it obvious how that
group is defined. The Latent Public would b e unaware of a situation. Due
to their ignorance, they are unable to take action. Aware Public is given
information, enabling them to plan their next course of action. This action
will be assessed based on the outcomes it generates. An Active Public
makes a free choice to respond to a connection. It can be providing aid, or
it might just be doing nothing.
1.3.2 Factors supporting the growth of Public Relations
The field of Public Relations has witnessed steady growth over the years.
Today, be it a politicia n or a businessperson, small or large, make use of
either in -house or outside Public Relations services to enhance their images
and reputation in the eye of the public. Some of the significant factors
influencing the growth and practice of Public Relations are
Technological advancement has made Mass production, distribution, and
marketing possible. The companies now have resources for efficient and
effective organizational communication and more specific audiences.
Better Literacy rate and growth of an educ ated middle class created a
demand for information about people and organizations. A rise in social
science research has led to an accumulation of reliable, dependable data that
can interpret public opinion or sentiments. The very "professionalization"
of Public Relations has led to almost every corporate firm, Government
body having PR professionals at various levels. munotes.in

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6 Public Relations Theory and Practice
6 1.4 FUNCTIONS OF PUB LIC RELATIONS
PRACTITIONER
Communication is a behaviour of individuals, and the transfer of a message
from one person to another is an act that we call "to communicate". For a
Public Relations professional, communication is all about managing,
planning, and executing communications for the organizations and moving
a message into the organizations. For example, a PR professi onal will
conduct research on the public's knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours. The
knowledge gained through such research can be used to counsel managers
on their future actions. It will help the management decide the future course
of their action or dec ision so that the message is well received by its public.
1. To identify and evaluate public opinion attitudes about the
government, individuals, or organizations on a particular issue.
2. To create plans and execute them in the short, medium and long term
to wi n people's consent or make them aware of facts about an issue.
3. To disseminate critical information regarding the policies, activities
and plans of government or a community.
4. To undertake conflict management and settle any crisis by wading off
adverse press reports that can impact the image of an organization.
5. Within an organization, a PR practitioner helps in facilitating a
healthy interaction between the management and its pu blic.
6. Maintaining a relationship with media houses to guard against any
damaging mass media war
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
What are the types of Publics according to John Dewey?
____________________________________________________________
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What are the functions of a Pu blic Relations Practitioner?
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7 Publics, Relationships and Social Exchange Theory 1.5 THE IMPORTANCE O F RELATIONSHIPS IN
PUBLIC RELATIONS
Relationship building is crucial to Public Relations. There is a saying, "in
business; it is not about what you know, it's about who you know?". In every
industry, for success, one needs to have a network of people to
produce/deliver the best of their potential. A relationship is most vital when
it is mutually beneficial and has 'win -win" outcomes. It is a mutually
beneficial relationship when people share accurate and relevant
information. A relati onship should be open to trustworthy dialogue and has
a spirit of cooperation, aligned interests, openness to see others' perception
and a commitment to make a positive difference in the lives of involved
publics affected by your organization. Relationship building is the very
foundation of Public Relations. According to systems theory, a unit as a
whole will prosper when all its elements are in balance or experience
harmony. The idea is applied to human society and our relationships.
From an interperso nal relationship point of view, various theories suggest
that people like relationships that reward them. This reward is not monetary
benefit but an act of self -disclosure, a purposeful revelation of information
about oneself. Relationships at times go thr ough phases. They can start,
succeed, fail, and sometimes need repair. For a successful relationship in
Public Relations, similar interpretations of events and shared benefits are of
utmost importance in a relationship. For example, take up any television
show where there are "judges" present to evaluate performance, and you
will find reliably how easy it is for people to interpret things differently. An
organization and stakeholders must share similar interpretations of events if
the relationship runs smoo thly. Stakeholders are those people who have a
vested interest in the business/organization and can be affected by its
performance. Stakeholders comprise investors, employees, suppliers,
customers, communities, the government even trade associates.
When we look at an organization from a "system" theory we can analyze
that each subsystem will have an impact on the other subsystem. For
example: There is an ABC corporation, it will have the following
subsystems such as a production department, warehousing depa rtment, IT
department, HR department, which include further subsystems of
manufacturing and engineering and finance and many more. Meanwhile,
Public Relations functions on the edge of the organization as a liaison
between organizations, external groups, an d the community. They have one
foot in the organization and one outside.
1.5.1 Characteristics of a mutually beneficial relationship
1. Openness: This kind of relationship fosters two -way communication
for listening and sharing valuable information. It is in contrast with
the one -way communication in which an organization only speaks but
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8 2. Trust: This is built over time in a relationship and cannot be created
within days. Trust between an organization and the public can be
fostered by not being m anipulative and exploitative.
3. Cooperation: Deciding by considering the stakeholders' views and
keeping in mind the needs/wants of the organization.
4. Alignment: The organization and stakeholders have shared interests,
rewards, and goals.
5. Commitment: Supporti ng the community by displaying commitment
to it.
1.5.2 Types of Relationship in Public Relations
Relationship with the community: A comprehensive relationship program
should be in place to build a respectable image of an organization in the
long run. Many organizations have programs that help benefit the life of
community members —for example, giving free education to girls or
protecting the environment, etc.
Relationship with the employee: Loyal and happy employees are vital to
the success of any organizat ion. A PR in an organization tries to create
employee goodwill. It has been done since the day of joining a new
employee. The employer can maintain a trustworthy and cordial
relationship with the employees by sharing information and ideas. The
better the e mployee communications, the more successful an organization
gets.
Relationship with the investors: It is known by its other name, financial
communications, or financial Public Relations. The Public Relations
department will keep an investor updated about t he work getting done in the
organization, including new initiatives and happenings. All this is done
because an investor is significant in a business, and they may hold some
part of the company or could be potential investors in the future. Keeping
them up dated with the happenings and critical initiatives will help maintain
a clear picture in an investor's mind about the goal and objectives of the
company, further bolstering their case for more investments when needed.
Relationship with the Media: In our da y to day lives, we learn about the
happenings around us through media; hence it plays a crucial role in
maintaining a particular type of image in the public of an organization.
Media relations is seen as a beneficial relationship for both the journalist
and the PR Personnel. At times, journalists need press releases or critical
data about the company to get through the PR department. In contrast, the
PR department can use the media to send urgent messages to their respective
publics in times of need.
Relati onship with the customers:
The happier the customers are, the better the business will be. Therefore,
customer relations include efforts by the company to improve customer
experiences. It can be done by setting any disputes, acknowledging any munotes.in

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9 Publics, Relationships and Social Exchange Theory grievances an d by maintaining an enjoyable conversation with the value
customers by knowing their suggestions, interests, and feedback
Marketing communications: Through marketing, it is through marketing
that can help a business/ individual, or an organization get the attention and
recognition it needs. Today in the digital world, it is necessary that to spread
your business/ ideas or messages across, one has to have its presence over
social networking sites. Being on social networking sites is a new trend
adopted by va rious organizations to run a business nowadays. An
organization can grasp customer attention and attract new customers
through these sites.
Crisis Communication: Business and uncertainty go hand in hand. This
uncertainty can come in various forms. Such tensions or situations of crisis
can arise from numerous places. Example: One wrong statement by a
company's head in the media can lead to controversy. Or it can be a newer
initiative that the company took that led to backlash from the community.
There could be other risks that may call for an immediate response from the
company. Example: Faulty product, spilling an oil tanker, a lousy product
that can cause health pr oblems. These situations need to be addressed as
soon as possible. In such cases, the Public Relations department tries setting
up interviews at media houses, releases press releases, issues statements
through social media or press.
1.6 SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY
Public Relations derive many theories from sociology and psychology. one
such view is social exchange theory. As the name suggests, the approach
gives a psychological perspective that explains social change and stability
as interactions between parti es.
In simple terms, social exchange theory proposed that social behaviour
results from an exchange between parties to maximize benefits and
minimize cost.
According to this theory, people weigh relationships' potential benefits and
risks. When risks outw eigh the rewards, people will end, terminate, or
abandon the relationship. It tells us that the majority of the connections are
made up of giving and taking but are not always equal. Through this
process, one decides whether or not to continue a social ass ociation with
someone. A state of equity exists in a relationship when individuals feel that
the costs, they bear are proportional to their rewards. Costs include things
that one sees as negatives, such as putting in extra time, money, or effort in
a relat ionship. For example, everyone suffers if you have a friend who
always borrows money from you or a teammate who is always late and
never completes tasks on time. Benefits are what one gets in return in a
relationship, such as help, friendship, support. For example, your friend
could be lazy and always late to wherever you go, but there is no fun and
excitement in your life without them. In such a case, when you do the cost
and benefits analysis, you may see that the benefits outweigh the costs, and
therefor e, one may choose to continue such a relationship. munotes.in

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10 Public Relations Theory and Practice
10 One may ask how this is relevant to Public Relations. This is from this
perspective. We have already established that people reach out to others to
expect their communication to be reciprocated. There is an expectation of
reciprocity between employees or between higher authorities and the staff
in a workplace. When employees feel that their efforts are not reciprocated
by either their teammates or the management, their work can be severely
affected.
1.6.1 History
This theory may sound a little similar to the barter system as "exchange" is
at the heart of economic systems. Right from the barter system to today's
currency -based economies, where goods and services are exchanged for
currency tells us that mutually bene ficial transactions are not just about the
economy but also about society's essential features.
George C. Homans first put forth this theory in 1958. Homans was a pioneer
in behavioural sociology. He was also the president of the American
Sociological Asso ciation and Chairman of Harvard's sociology department.
1.7 ADVANTAGES OF PU BLIC RELATIONS
Credibility: People trust an organization more when communication comes
directly through the organization itself and not through a third party, usually
seen as adv ertised content.
Cost-effectiveness: Not every single idea can be communicated through
advertisements. Having a PR team is a cost -effective technique to reach a
larger audience in such cases.
Better Communication: At times when an individual communicates a n idea,
it may happen so that he thinks about a piece of information only through a
single perspective, and at times, the community can misread or misjudge
such a piece of information. In such a situation, Public Relations can help
the company communicate more details in a much -polished manner by
sending out messages or issuing statements that can address a problem
holistically.
Reach: One of the parameters to measure the effectiveness of any PR team
is Reach. An excellent Public Relations strategy can help expose content to
a larger audience/public.
1.7.1 Disadvantages of Public Relations
Hard to measure success: Once the message is released or communicated
through any medium, one can only estimate how many people were exposed
to that message. Since Public R elations is not like advertising, it is tough to
measure and evaluate the effectiveness of a PR Campaign.
Little control: A PR department does not own a media agency. PR personnel
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11 Publics, Relationships and Social Exchange Theory to public their content. It means that a PR professional has less direct
influence over the success of PR campaigns.
No guaranteed results: The problem with any marketing campaign is that its
success cannot be guaranteed. It is possible that the whole plan co uld be a
miss and cannot strike the right chord with the correct public. Only
eventually can the benefits of Public Relations be discovered. The efforts
can become more visible over time.
1.8 LET’S SUM IT UP
The unit in totality gives us a fair idea of t he field of Public Relations. It
serves as a revelation that this field is too broad. It also cements the fact that
much of the communication in Public Relations is purposive and
persuasive.
Public sentiment is everything; if it is not in favour of any org anization,
person, or government, then the chances of success of such entities is
meagre. Only he who can mould public sentiment is an effective Public
Relations practitioner. As a civilization, we are growing more complex by
the day with an increase in gr oups and subgroups. At the same time, we are
dependent on each other. Such groups come into conflict from time to time,
there is a need for a mediator in every field so that a better understanding
can be developed between groups. PR acts as a bridge among these diverse
groups.
PR has numerous definitions, but to sum it all up one can say the
considerably basic function of PR is to create mutual understanding, create
goodwill, win belief and attract public attention. All these can be achieved
only with a two -way communication process, i.e., not just by simply talking
but by also listening and considering the feedback in the decision -making
process.
1.9 QUESTIONS
Objectives
1. It is not just seen as a professional practice but is also an academic
field with its own theories and foundation. True or false?
2. Public relation is_______ done for a mutually beneficial relationship.
1. strategic communication
2. Non-strategic communication
3. One to one communication
4. Grapevine communication
3. The difference between publics and the masses is that the latter is a
1. Homogenous group
2. Heterogeneous group munotes.in

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12 Public Relations Theory and Practice
12 3. Outgroup
4. Subgroup
Answer in two lines
1. What is the definition of PR given by Cutlip, Center and Broom , for
Effective Public Relations?
2. Why is PR a misunderstood field?
Answer in three -four lines
1. Enunciate the importance of PR?
2. Write down two advantages and disadvantages of having Public
Relations?
Activity
1. Describe social exchange theory in your own words and your own
experiences?
2. Select a company or an industry, try visiting it or look it up on the
internet and try to know how its PR functions and write your
experience below?
1.10 REFERENCES
1. Cutlip, S., Center, A. and Broom, G., 1985. Effective Public
Relations. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice -Hall.
2. Grunig, J. and Hunt, T., 1984. Managing Public Relations. New York:
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
2. Stephen W. Littlejohn, Karen A. Foss, e ditors. Encyclopedia of
Communication Theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2009.
7777777
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13 2
GROUP DYNAMICS
DEFINITION AND THEORY
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction: What is a group
2.1.1 Group and its characteristics
2.2 Group dynamics: Good and bad dynamics and its impact
2.3 Theories on Group formation
2.3.1 Bruce Tuckman’s view on group formation
2.4 Types o f groups and their purpose
2.4.1 Formal groups and characteristics
2.4.2 Informal group and characteristics
2.5 Intergroup dynamics
2.5.1 Problems with intergroup dynamics
2.5.2 solution to intergroup conflicts: Contact hypothesis,
superordinate identities , Interdependence
2.6 Group dynamics experiments: The Robbers cave study - Muzafer
Sherif, The Jigsaw Classroom: Elliot Aronson.
2.7 Intragroup dynamics
2.7.1 The black sheep effects
2.8 Let’s Sum It Up
2.9 Questions
2.10 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
This un it deals with group and group dynamics, their definition and
description. The unit describes how groups are formed and how they
function. It explains why it is important to understand groups in Public
Relations. Overall, the unit provides basic ideas conce rning groups and their
formation. After studying this unit, you will be able to
1. Define the meaning of a group
2. Summarize the characteristics of a group
3. Examine group dynamics both positive and negative
4. Explain group formation with the help of theories
5. Analyze types of groups, and evaluate their functioning munotes.in

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14 Public Relations Theory and Practice
14 2.1 INTRODUCTION: WH AT IS A GROUP
Human beings are constantly interacting with others, groups, and within
groups. It is why social sciences have always emphasized the importance of
group dynamics. In reality, individuals may join many groups, ranging from
formal or informal groups. It can be a workgroup, school group, sports
group, or a group where you share your hobbies.
A fundamental definition of a group can be "two or more indiv iduals who
share common meaning and experiences and have a common goal. From a
Public Relations perspective knowing the attitude, habits or behavioural
patterns of a group can help make them feel valued, informed, and listened
to. The primary purpose of th ese groups is to guide us, restrict us and sustain
us. Being a part of a group satisfies our need for belonging, to gain
information and form our sense of self and social identity. Whether by
choice or default, one always falls in some of the other group t ypes.
2.2.1 Group Characteristics
Size: Single people cannot be considered a group. Therefore, this is one of
the essential characteristics of a group: there have to be two or more people.
Structure : Everyone has a specific part to play in a group, and t hese
roles/parts form the very structure of the group.
Goals : Every group has a specific aim to be achieved. Without this goal, a
group cannot exist. For example, even among friends, the primary purpose
of friendship is to help people change and grow in li fe.
Norms : Norms govern the action and behaviour of people. Whether formal
or informal, every group has specific ground rules of how a member is
expected to behave. Usually, it is punishable by law when one violates rules,
but a norm violation has no puni shment. Still, at times a person committing
such an offense is looked down on in society. Example: Norm can be
something as simple as dinner table manners, a certain kind of behaviour in
public places, how you greet someone when you meet them. These are al l
examples of norms.
Roles : Roles in a group is an excellent way to encourage individual
accountability. When one is aware of its role in a group, it is easier to hold
people accountable for not completing a task assigned.
Interaction : A group cannot be ca lled a group without interaction.
Interaction facilitates smooth functioning and better coordination among
group members in times of stress. For example, suppose you are on a
basketball team or any sports team that is not a solo sport. Group
interactions a re the key to knowing about your peers to better coordinate.
Collective identity: This refers to a sense of belonging to a group. Here the
collective identity also becomes a part of individual identity. One may call
himself an environmentalist, which is no thing, but a collective self -
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15 Group Dynamics Definition and Theory 2.2 GROUP DYNAMICS
Group dynamics deals with the behavioural patterns and attitudes of a
group. Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist, coined the term "group dynamics"
in th e early 1940s. He pointed out that people take on distinct roles and
behaviours when working in a group. According to Lewin, Group dynamics
affects these roles and behaviours in other teammates in the group. Recent
studies have shown that a team with a pos itive dynamic is twice as likely to
be creative as an average group. While poor dynamics can disrupt people's
work, which may cause the team to never get to any decision or worse, it
may make a wrong decision. The study of group dynamics is helpful when
studying decision -making behaviour.
For example, you may contact the brightest individuals and put them in a
group to solve a problem; in this case, it is a formal group. You may have
high hopes for the group, but you may get easily frustrated when there is no
satisfactory outcome. There could be many factors that could be causing
hindrance and affecting decision making. These problems can range from
an extremely critical colleague who is finding only faults and lowering the
morale of other teammates, or it could be because some didn't contribute
when asked for their opinion, or someone making humorous comments to
bring down stress at the wrong time.
The key reason to study group dynamics is that Public Relations involve
understanding people, what motiva tes them, drives them, and how one can
work along with them. Also, as a PR, one will get a second -hand perspective
on how people react to different campaigns, brands, situations. Still, one
will also get first -hand perspective by interacting within groups working in
teams and colleagues. For this, one needs to have an understanding of group
dynamics. Also, all organizations need to have distinct groups for
coordinated effective action while for individual employees, groups are
necessary for constructing ide ntity and making sense of the workplace.
2.3 THEORIES OF GROU P FORMATION
The view on group formation differs. The social cohesion approach
suggests that group formation results from 'interpersonal attraction'. Which
in social psychology leads to platonic or romantic relationships. In contrast,
the social identity approach views that a group starts when a collection of
individuals share some social category (students, football players). The
latter considers any interpersonal attraction only a secondary trai t that helps
the connection.
Meanwhile, looking from a third perspective, i.e., the social exchange
theory suggests, people will remain in a group that can provide them with
maximum rewards while ensuring the minimum cost. Another perspective,
named Optima l distinctiveness theory posits that individuals desire to be
similar to others; at the same time, they want to differentiate themselves and
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16 Public Relations Theory and Practice
16 One may question why people become a part of a group, especially wh en it
is intentional. Every individual has two identities: a personal identity and a
social identity. Personal identity is all about individual qualities and
attributes, whereas group membership defines a social identity. One may
ask what people derive fro m social identity. By being a member of a group
or multiple groups, we compare the group/groups we subscribe to (i.e., the
in-group) against the other group (out -group). These comparisons are
mostly non -objective and can be called more as an evaluation. We see our
group positively, which gives us a distinct and valued social identity and
boosts our self -esteem. For example: Think about football fan clubs; every
football club fan thinks the team they support is better than the others;
similar is the case for cricket clubs.
2.3.1 Tuckman's Group Formation
Bruce Tuckman developed a framework in the 1960s to understand group
formation. One can agree that groups do not usually perform at maximum
effectiveness when first formed. It means it has to go through var ious stages
to eventually become productive or effective. There are a few critical stages
through which all groups pass. According to Tuckman, there are five stages
of group development.
Forming : This is considered an orientation period. At this stage, pe ople get
to know each other. There are no leaders or tasks formed in the group yet.
Members know one another and have some shared expectations about the
group. At this stage, virtues like trust and openness should be allowed to
grow. These feelings will he lp the relationship grow in the latter stages.
Individuals are usually confused at this stage due to a lack of assigned roles.
Storming : There will be maximum conflict at this stage due to
disagreements. Many members will try and challenge the group's goal and
struggle for power or a leadership position at this stage. The group may stop
existing if members cannot develop a solution for the conflict. If the
disagreements worsen and there is no resolution, there is a possibility that
the group may exist, but it would be a non -functional one and will never
advance to further stages.
Norming : Under this stage, the responsibilities of different members are
decided. Members are now aware of their differences and shared goals. At
this stage, members develop a feeli ng of oneness and identity. Any group
efforts will also yield superior results.
Performing : At this stage, any conflict is resolved through discussion.
Members accept one another and attain a feeling of cohesiveness. Here
members are more focused, and deci sions are based on reaching relevant
goals.
Adjourning : This means disbandment of the group. Depending upon the
kind of group and its purpose, a group may go through this stage early or
never. Disbandment differs because the task is completed, or the membe rs
have decided to go their ways. The timing may vary, or the group may never
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17 Group Dynamics Definition and Theory 2.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GROUPS
In an organization, there are several types of groups. One can categorize a
group into two major classes, depending on the purpose it serves. These
purposes can range from fulfilling an organizational objective or simply for
self-interest. Broadly let's look at Informal and formal groups and their
subcategories.
2.4.1 Formal Groups
When people come together to achieve an org anizational goal or objectives,
then can be termed a formal group. Some specific rules and regulations
guide the formation of the group. One cannot simply leave and join the
group without permission. The size of such groups is large as they have a
goal to achieve. All members in the group have some skills and
competencies to help an organization with its purpose or turn ideas into
reality.
a. Command Group: Some people are placed at a top hierarchy while
others are at the bottom due to the hierarchical arr angement. Here the
flow of information is top -down, i.e., it flows from top to bottom.
b. Task Group: This group is formed to carry out a task. Once an
assignment is over, the group may cease to exist. Such groups may
include individuals with skills and kn owledge.
c. Committees : For a particular project, a committee is established by
appointing specialists. Once the project responsibilities are
completed, the members can disassociate from the group.
2.4.2 Informal groups
Such groups are usually not by a p articular choice. The core purpose of this
group is common interest or self -satisfaction. As in the formal group,
communication flows from top to bottom; the conversation usually moves
sideways without a defined path in the informal group. An informal grou p
is voluntarily formed by members coming together. One can join and leave
the group whenever one decides. In such groups, people know each other at
a personal level hence the size of a group is comparatively smaller than the
formal one.
Interest groups: As the name suggests, such groups are formed for a
common purpose, but it also plays a huge part in one's self -interest.
Friendship Group: We are all familiar with such a group. This is the result
of one's own choice. Such individuals are comfortable and f riendly with one
another.
Reference Groups: Such a group is used for evaluation purposes. They are
used for social comparison and validation. Such groups have a strong
influence on members' behaviour. The best examples of these groups are
family, friends, and religious affiliations. Social validation often allows
individuals to justify their values, while comparison helps members to
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18 Public Relations Theory and Practice
18 2.5 INTERGROUP DYNAM ICS
This is a behavioural and psychological relationship between groups, two
or more. These dynamics include attitude, opinions, perceptions and
behaviours towards another group and own group. Studying such dynamics
is essential to understand why certain groups are more successful when they
come together than others. For example: som etimes intergroups dynamics
are positive and beneficial to achieve the required work efficiently. But at
times, intergroup dynamics can create conflict.
2.5.1 Problems in intergroup dynamics
The conflict in an intergroup usually starts with a process of comparison.
This comparison is biased and non -objective and can be deemed a simple
mechanism for enhancing one's self -esteem. This may cause problems such
as purposely favouring one group over another, remembering only positive
details about one group and negative information about others. At times,
even without interaction, individuals begin to show liking towards their own
groups and negatively react towards others. For example, look at the various
religious groups; intergroup conflict is evident in every country. At times,
such conflicts can also be seen in between diverse cultures. Such intergroup
conflicts can result in prejudice, stereotypes, and ill -behaviour. Intergroup
conflicts fuel the fire in the case of social groups that have a long history of
conflict.
But not all intergroup conflicts can be harmful —for example, competition
between universities or companies.
2.5.2 Solution for Intergroup conflicts
Contact Hypothesis (Intergroup Contact theory): The approach suggests
that the problems can be reduced by promoting contact between two groups.
This idea was first proposed by Gordon Allport (1954) where it put forth
four critical conditions for contact:
a) equal status: Members of two groups should not have unequal
hierarchical relationships.
b) Cooperation: Members should work in a non -competitive
environment.
c) Common goals: Members should be working towards a shared goal.
d) support by social and institutional authorities: Social authorities
should not sanction the contact but rather should b e there for support
purposes.
Intergroup cooperation, shared goals, and support by social and institutional
authorities. However, one should see Allport's conditions simply as
facilitating rather than essential. A wide -scale meta -analysis showed that
although structured contact helped in reducing prejudices, even the un -
structured one worked equally well. Because there have been wide -scale
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19 Group Dynamics Definition and Theory racial segregation in the U.S.A. Gordon Allport's view helped improve
social relations between races in the U.S.A. and is enshrined in policy -
making all over the globe.
Superordinate Identities
Another solution for intergroup conflict can be superordinate identities.
This means grouping subgroups into an umbrella group/identity. For
example, there is a conflict between students from diverse cultural
backgrounds in a high school. One might highlight the "high school"
group/identity to reduce a conflict arising out of differences. One can also
call this app roach a shared group identity model. Try to think of such
examples and discuss them in the class.
Social psychologist Muzafer Sherif put forth the idea of the superordinate
group in his experiments on intergroup relations. The idea was to encourage
two groups to think of themselves by acknowledging what they have in
common. The approach can be used in many contexts, such as classrooms
and business organizations.
Interdependence :
Some techniques suggest that interdependence between groups to achieve a
goal can also reduce intergroup conflict. Two famous experiments proved
that interdependence is equally beneficial for resolving group conflict.
Muzafer Sherif’s Robbers Cave experiment and Elliot Aronson's Jigsaw
classroom experiment had the idea of "inter dependence" at its very crux to
determine a group conflict. These methods bring out individual
accountability and achievement of the team goals
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
What is the importance of groups? What are its types?
______________________________________ ______________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
Explain Tuckman’s Group Formation.
_________________________________ ___________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
2.6 STUDIES UNDERTAK EN ON GROUP DYNAMICS
The Robbers Cave Stu dy
In the 1950s, Muzafer Sherif and others conducted the Robbers cave field
experiment to study intergroup conflict and cooperation as part of the
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20 Public Relations Theory and Practice
20 Twenty -two boys who were 11 -year-old, were sent to a summer camp i n
Oklahoma at the Robbers Cave State Park. Over the first week, the boys
developed an attachment to their groups by doing various activities
together. The boys also chose their groups' names, "The Eagles" and "The
Rattlers". Prejudice became visible during a four -day series of competitions
between the groups (verbal). After two days, the boys were asked to list
down the features of the group. As expected, the boys characterized their
group better and in favorable terms and characterized the other group in
unfavorable terms. Sherif tried reducing the prejudice by simply increasing
the contact between the two groups, but the situation worsened.
Alternatively, when the groups had to work together to reach common
goals, the tension between the two parties came d own. This study also
confirmed Sherif's Realistic Conflict theory, which states that group conflict
can result from competition over resources.
The Jigsaw classroom
The strategy was developed in 1971 in Austin, Texas, by Elliot Aronson.
Out of a necessit y to help resolve the conflict that arose due to the
Desegregation of schools. Austin was a place where schools were racially
segregated. This means White youngsters, African - American youngsters
and Hispanic youngsters had a different set -up for education . But after
Desegregation, they all found themselves in the same classrooms for the
first time. Within weeks, there was an atmosphere of turmoil and hostility
in the school. Fights constantly erupted in schoolyards.
The overall idea of this strategy was to make students dependent on each
other to succeed. Over the years, it was used in schools/various groups to
increase cooperation.
Under this technique, the class is split into mixed groups, each having four
to six members. Now each student from the grou p takes on the responsibility
of one piece of the full content. For example, if you have 5 group members
in each group, you can divide the content into five parts so that each student
can learn one part of it. Once everyone from each group has known their
part. Students who have studied the same part from each group can be
assembled. So, from each group who have studied the introduction can be
in one group; all those who have read the conclusion can be in one group.
Such groups can be called expert groups. Students can compare their ideas
within each expert group and work together to prepare a presentation to give
to their jigsaw groups. In this particular step, gaps in students' knowledge
can be filled up, misconceptions can be cleared up, and essential con cepts
can be understood clearly. Now, these students can return to their original
group, where each takes a turn to present its information while others listen
carefully and take notes. Everyone in the group takes turns explaining their
concept while other s ask questions for clarity. When everyone is done, all
students can take a quiz in which all pieces of information that everyone
took is included in the quiz. Hence, to score more, team members will
depend on others and listen patiently to everyone's piec e since their own
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21 Group Dynamics Definition and Theory 2.7 INTRAGROUP DYNAM ICS
It is also referred to as an "in -group" "within the group". These dynamics
are the ones that give rise to a set of roles, norms, goals and characte rize a
social group. In intragroup dynamics, there is an interdependence between
people through which the other group members influence each member's
behaviours, attitudes, experiences, and opinions. Intragroup dynamics is an
area of interest in many field s, and there is an interest in understanding how
these dynamics influence behaviour attitudes and beliefs. The presence of
others usually influences individual behaviour. Many studies have shown
that individuals work more efficiently in the company of othe rs. At times,
these performances may slow down in a case of conflict or distraction. A
group plays a significant role in individual decision -making processes. This
decision can be good or bad; it includes biases, persuasion, manipulation,
obedience. Influe nces can be positive or negative. For example - if you
become a part of a team known for completing their work ahead of time.
Then you will always be on your toes to get work done early. Such dynamics
are helpful in the context of work settings and team spo rts. However, there
can be negative influences, such as Nazi Germany.
2.7.1 The Black sheep Effect
One problem with the intra -group dynamics is the black sheep effect. Often
individuals tend to like certain members of the group more than others. They
are making the latter a separate out -group in itself. An out -group member is
an individual or an organization who does not identify itself as a part of the
larger group or are not interested in pursuing the same goal.
It may cause a person's beliefs to change depending upon whether they are
part of the in -group or the out -group. Any new member who wants to join
such a group will have to prove themselves to the entire group to get
accepted. Any member who has lost membership because they couldn't
match the grou p's expectations can re -join a group through re -socialization.
2.8 LET’S SUM IT UP:
To every company, both the out -groups and the in -groups are essential. Both
of the groups are part of everyday Public Relations. Although the in -group
is usually easier t o deal with, it is the responsibility of a PR practitioner to
understand the out -group. Usually, out -group members may disagree with
the goals of the in -group members. Trying to persuade, convince, or win the
trust of such an out -group can be challenging f or a PR practitioner. Such
out-group people can bring in unique talents and perspectives necessary for
a changing business environment.
2.9 QUESTIONS
Objectives
1. _______ is a behavioural and psychological relationship between
groups, two or more.
a. Intragroup dynamics munotes.in

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22 Public Relations Theory and Practice
22 b. Interpersonal communication
c. Inter group dynamics
d. Intrapersonal Communication
2. _______put forth the idea of the superordinate group in his
experiments on intergroup relations.
a. Muzafer Sherif
b. Gordon Allport
c. Kurt Lewi n
d. Elliot Aronson
3. ________ is the problem seen in the intragroup dynamics
a. Interdependence
b. Superordinate identities
c. Black sheep effect
d. Blue sheep effect
Answer the following in three to four lines
1. Explain the 4 perspectives on group for mation
2. What are the stages of group formation?
3. What sets informal group apart from the formal ones?
Activity
1. Think about a group that you are part of knowingly and unknowingly.
List down the group characteristics in detail.
2. What is your view on Gordon Allport’s idea of conflict resolution? In
what all areas in a society can this be applicable
3. Try the jigsaw classroom experiment in your group.
2.10 REFERENCES
1. Engleberg, Isa N.; Wynn, Dianna R. (2007). Working in groups.
2. Berne, E. S tructure and Dynamics of Organizations and Groups. J. B.
Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1963.
3. https://www.jigsaw.org
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23 3
MASS SOCIETY, MASS CULTURE
AND MASS MEDIA
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Intro duction
3.3 Society and Social Change
3.4 Mass Society Paradigm
3.4.1 Mass Society Theory
3.4.2 War of the worlds broadcast
3.5 Mass Culture
3.5.1 High vs Low culture
3.5.2 Folk vs popular culture
3.5.3 School of cultural studies and Mass media
3.6 Mass me dia
3.6.1 Definition of Mass Communication
3.6.2 What is a communication model
3.6.3 Functions of Media
3.6.4 Functions of Media according to Key Theorists
3.7 Let’s Sum It Up
3.8 Questions
3.9 References
3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we will start with t he basic understanding of what a society is
and then look through the concept of mass society. How did mass society
come into being, what exactly is the mass society paradigm and is it relevant
today or not. Further, mass culture and types of mass culture are discussed
in detail. There is detailed information on mass media and its function and
how different theorists believed in various functions of mass media. After
studying this unit, you will be able to
1. Define society and social change
2. Understan d the idea of the mass society paradigm
3. Distinguish between two schools of thought, namely Frankfurt
(critical view) and Birmingham school (cultural studies).
4. Highlight functions of mass communication given by different
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24 Public Relations Theory and Practice
24 3.1 INTRODUCTION
Mass Media is intricately woven in society, so much so that it is impossible
to imagine our lives without it. It has saturated our lives to the extent that
we hardly even notice its presence and influence on us. But where did it all
start? And what cour se did it follow to get here? One must understand that
mass communication was never studied until World War One. It was only
after the war that a few theorists, such as Walter Lippman and John Dewey,
started examining the role of journalism and its impact on democracy,
further paving the way for a newer field of mass communication.
As time passed, the field of mass communication gained further popularity
among other theorists after World War Two. Field of persuasion studies in
mass communication gained a lot of attention at that time, as theorists
wanted to know how media was used in spreading propaganda and ideas
that eventually led to World War two. During this time, the famous debate
in mass communication surfaced that is ongoing even today. It was ab out
whether the masses influence the media, or the media influences the masses
and its culture.
Look at media studies, and you will find that there is no single
communication theory that studies media in isolation. This is because
communication impacts every aspect of an individual's life, ranging from
psychological to cultural to societal. No one definition can encompass all
its dimensions. To add another variable in every advancing field of
communication is technology. With changing technology, the wa y people
interact and society's functions change. Thus, the study of mass
communication is not just about understanding communication. It is about
understanding groups, society, culture, technology, psychology, sociology,
even anthropology.
3.3 SOCIETY A ND SOCIAL CHANGE
Let's start with understanding society so that it will be easier to grasp the
well-known concept of mass society in the media. So, what is a society? In
simple terms, society is a group of individuals involved in social interaction,
have a large group, or have the same social territory. These people either
share the same culture, belief system, or common traditions or all three. It
is at this level that social changes take place. The changes in the way of
human interaction and their rela tionships or that transform cultural and
social institutions is called social change.
For example, let's look at industrialization and the social change it brought
in our society. Industrialization restructured society altogether; it created
new schools of philosophy, caused rapid urbanization, and aided newer
ways of living etc.
No society has ever remained the same. Change is always happening at
various levels among people and among theorists, who change their
perspectives about culture or economics or philosophy from time to time.
This is what brings us to the topic of mass society, which was once a munotes.in

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25 Mass Society, Mass Culture and Mass Media dominant paradigm but now has become obsolete. A paradigm is a set of
underlying assumptions and operating principles that every researcher has.
Accordi ng to Kuhn, these foundational beliefs are what forms or is called a
paradigm. A paradigm can have several theories within its framework, and
it acts as a reference point for the theory.
3.4 MASS SOCIETY PARADIG M
The idea of mass society was developed in the latter part of the 19th century,
right after the industrial revolution and after the second world war. It is
necessary to understand the term ‘mass’ to understand how it was used
earlier and how it is used today. Earlier, the term ‘mass’ was used
negatively. It referred to ‘common people’ or the masses, which was seen
as uneducated, ignorant, and violent. The same term can be used positively
as well. When you try viewing it from a socialist perspective (an idea that
believes in social ownership of me ans of production), it connotes strength,
solidarity of the working class, which can be organized into groups for a
“mass action.” However, the term mass was viewed as unflattering because
it suggested a collection of individuals without much individuality . This
pessimistic idea of “mass” was used for the media “audiences' ' because the
audiences were large in number, an undifferentiated audience for the
popular media.
This thought of a ‘mass society” started emerging in the mid -19th century
when people travelled primarily to the cities from rural areas to live in the
cities and work in industries for their livelihood. One of the most evident
changes that industrialization brought with it was a change in the occupation
and the way of living of the masses. When radio and television got popular
among the masses in the late 1940s and in 1950s, many theorists critiqued
media, suggesting it undermines the social order as it threatened the
established way of doing things. After the media’s popularity, many socia l
institutions such as family, church, and state that focused intensely on
individuality were lost.
Drastic changes in the social order, culture and politics brought by these
new mediums are what the theorists feared. They feared what they couldn't
unde rstand. Such a dominant perspective about media and society that
emerged and developed in the latter 19th century was referred to as the mass
Society Theory in Mass media. This perspective is about how a good social
order of rural community life got disrup ted and how a nightmarish future is
ahead of where we become servants to the machine.
Today such notions about mass media ceased to be relevant.
What is clearer today is that mass media can be a solution as much as it is a
problem. Today media is less ‘massive,’ one -directional and more
responsive and participant. But at times, we may see that these media can
exert power, stereotype, stigmatize, or give misinformation to the masses.
For times like these, we should keep in mind the mass society theory at the
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26 Public Relations Theory and Practice
26 In the aftermath of World War Two, many questioned the fact that how can
democracies like Germany and Italy embrace fascism. To such question, the
concept of mass society theory was a befitting reply. This paradigm gave an
easy a nswer, which helped the mass society theory gain credibility years.
But we all know that mass media was not the single culprit for World War
Two.
3.4.1 Mass Society Theory
Theories that fall under the mass society paradigm are also called media
effects th eories. Most of these theories have been shaped by studies that
showed how television influenced large, heterogeneous audiences.
Television’s popularity during the 1950s -1990S was uncontested.
Therefore, theories developed after the 1950s can be seen as a response to
broadcasting on television, as TV was seen as the root cause of most social
issues. One such theory that supported the idea of the mass society paradigm
was the Magic Bullet Theory. Under this theory, the media was thought to
have enormous powe r on people. So much so that every message from the
media was like gun firing bullets of information toward the passive
audience. Communication was seen like a magic bullet that almost
automatically transfers the information to the people. Later on, the id ea of
the magic bullet was discredited by many theorists because it assumed that
the audience interprets the message in the same way and accepts whatever
is shown via the media. The theory didn’t consider the heterogeneity of the
audience or the demographi c variable such as age, gender, class, personality
etc.
3.4.2 War of the worlds Broadcast
In the 1930s, radio listeners received an alarming message: Martians were
invading Earth. The news alert interrupted radio programming to deliver the
stunning news heard by approximately 12 million people in the United
States. Mass hysteria ensued, causing confusion in the streets.
The only catch: The announcement, which came on Halloween eve, was
part of a radio version of H.G. Wells's War of the Worlds. In short, t he
broadcast was fake, but it perfectly illustrated a media hypothesis
popularized by Harold Laswell, known as the magic bullet theory.
3.5 MASS CULTURE
We have already understood how the term mass was used with a negative
connotation in society during th e late 19th century. The term culture has
many definitions, but to universally understand it, one can say culture is all
the practices or beliefs of a group. These groups are represented at a societal
level, and neither culture nor society can exist withou t one another.
In cultural studies, which is an interdisciplinary field to study class
structures, ethnicity, gender, ideology and many more things, mass culture
is seen as something that is mass -produced by mass audiences. This
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27 Mass Society, Mass Culture and Mass Media Critics of mass culture believed that such mass culture items discouraged
active thought and encouraged passive acceptance of produced goods in the
society, thereby burdening bonds of solidar ity and communal living.
In a famous book ‘The Dialectic of Enlightenment of 1947’, Theodor W.
Adorno and Max Horkheimer coined the term ‘culture industry’ to refer to
the rise of mass media and other forms of communication. The production
of media mes sages was seen as industrialized too. Both of the theorists
belonged to the Frankfurt School of critical Theory.
One of the key benefits of industrialization was that one could produce
anything in mass quantities, be it physical products such as radio, TV sets
or art such as paintings, even music, or shows. Adorno and Horkheimer
argued that the demand for cultural products emerged due to the
industrialization of radio, films, press, and music. Assuming that many
people have similar needs, the culture indus try tries to fulfil that with
identical goods. In such a way, media production can be controlled by a few
large corporations. As culture became business, it left little room for
imagination or reflection from audiences. For example: Today very few
people k now or enjoy classical music. Because such music cannot be mass -
produced, it needs a level of understanding to appreciate art or classical
music. But rap songs and pop music are more appreciated and loved by the
audience because it does not require any exp ertise, logic, or level of
understanding to enjoy the music.
3.5.1 High culture vs low culture
Cultures can be divided based on tastes. A stratification of culture exists in
which some are seen as ‘high culture’ while others are ‘Low culture.’ Both
cultur es talk about taste in music, art, or literature. High culture involves an
interest in classical music/dance, fine art, and gourmet foods. Low culture
tastes are completely opposite to this. Low culture can include fast foods,
Hip/hop music, and reality Tv shows. The difference between both the
cultures is arbitrary
3.5.2 Folk culture Vs Popular culture
Folk culture evokes the feeling of something traditional, which can be
dance, poetry, or music. The popular culture separates this type of culture
in a s ense that the former is more localized in nature and practiced by small
homogenous groups. Whereas popular culture is practices that are widely
prevalent or are dominant in society at a given point of time. Some pop
culture examples can be the rise in Indi an viewership of international shows
such as Friends, How I met your mother or k -dramas. Another example can
be the rise in pop -culture based merchandise —people these days who love
anime or any TV series like to purchase merchandise online.
One can find many similarities between mass and popular culture, but the
key difference is that mass culture is produced for the masses. Only a few
became a part of pop culture in different eras throughout history from these
productions. When mass culture undermines in dividuality, popular culture
gives a feeling of pseudo -identity. For example, we all may have the Spotify munotes.in

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28 Public Relations Theory and Practice
28 app, which is for the masses but at the same time gives you a sense of
personalization, through which you can curate and share your own playlists.
The same goes for fast food chains such as the subway.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Write a note on Mass Society Paradigm
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________ ___________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
Explain Mass Society, Societal & Social Change
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________ ____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
3.5.3 The school of Cultural studies and Mass Media
The key site for the development of cultural studies, also known as The
Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) was founded in
Birmingham University in 1964. Scholars such as Richard Hoggart, Stuart
Hall, and Richard Johnson significantly promoted cultural studies and ideas.
The school of cultural studies, just like the Frankfurt school, distinguishes
between mass and elite culture. But the school of culture studies denies the
inferiority of the mass culture against the elite culture on aesthetic values.
The Birmingham school believes that the mass culture is bottom -up rather
than top -down. If mass cul ture is produced among the masses, though not
by the masses, it must be possible for the masses to consume it actively and
selectively. Culturalists do not see audiences merely as the target of the
magic bullet from mass media. They believe that the masses interact with
the media to produce mass culture.
3.6 MASS MEDIA
Mass media in our daily lives is used interchangeably with mass
communication, but they are not the same. People usually have confusion
about this. Mass communication is an act of disseminat ing information to
the masses/public, whereas mass media involves a medium or any method
through which one can disseminate information. This medium includes
radio, TV, World Wide Web, books, internet etc.
In the early Middle Ages, the church, through i ts networks, had an elaborate
way of transmitting its ideas, values and principles to the masses. This act
could be called mass communication, but it cannot be termed mass media
since no medium was involved. Later in the mid -14th century, when media
arrive d in the form of printing, the church struggled to keep its control over
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29 Mass Society, Mass Culture and Mass Media One of the critical milestones in printing was the invention of the
Gutenberg's printing press which was used to print The Bible. Although,
techniques of printing and the use of movable type were known long before
that in China and Korea. The history of modern media is known to begin
with the printed book (Bible). But in the earlier days the book was not
regarded primarily as a means of communication. Instead, it was s een as a
repository of sacred writing or wisdom. It was almost 200 years after the
invention of printing that what we now recognize as a newspaper was
printed. This material could be different from the newsletters and
pamphlets. This was the first time all the activities that were once limited to
the governmental, diplomatic, and commercial domains were extended to
the public domain.
3.6.1 Definition of Mass Communication
Bittner (1980) defines mass communication as delivering messages to a
large number o f people through mass media.
DeFleur and Dennis (1985) define mass communication as the process by
which communicators use the media to spread messages widely and
continuously create meanings that are expected to influence large and
diverse audiences in nu merous ways.
Ruben (1992) defines mass communication as the process by which
information is created and disseminated by organizations for public
consumption.
Littlejohn and Foss (2011) define mass communication as the process by
which media organizations p roduce and transmit messages to the broad
public and the process by which messages can be seen, used, understood,
and influenced by audiences.
McQuail stated that mass communication is the only communication
process that runs at the wider community level a nd is easily known by its
institutional characteristics.
3.6.2 What is the communication Model
As a mass media student, one must have seen many communication models.
A basic communication model has elements such as a source, Message,
Medium, Receiver and Feedback. There are several models out there for
communication; many are a lot fancier, having components such as ‘noise,’
‘encoder,’ ‘decoder’ or something in terms of social context. One such
communication model that is considered the mother of all model s due to its
popularity is the Shannon and Weaver communication model.
The Shannon and Weaver model was proposed in 1948 in an article called
'mathematical theory of communication.' The model had the following
elements.
Sender (Information source): Her e, the sender could be anyone who wants
to communicate his ideas, thoughts, or information with others.
Transmitter: The next step in the model is the transmitter or a machine that
can convert the messages into the signal. Example: Computer that encodes
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30 Channel: This requires the physical infrastructure that gets information
from the sender and transmitter to the decoder.
Noise: As the name suggests, noise means any disturbance that can affect
the message.
Decoder: Decoding is the opposite function of encoding; here the message
is understood after being received.
Receiver: This is the end of the Shannon and Weaver model. It is here the
person finally receives and understands the message.
Feedback: This ultimate step was neve r initially proposed in the Shannon
and Weaver article. But Nobert Wiener later added the 'feedback' bit in the
model.
3.6.3 Functions of Mass Media
Under mass media, every message produced is with an intention. It is done
either to sell an idea, educate, inform, or entertain the masses. A few key
responsibilities of mass media are highlighted below.
1. Information and Education: Information ranging from politics to
weather reports, current affairs, governmental guidelines etc., all can
be acquired throu gh the media. The core function of any media is to
carry accurate, objective, and complete information.
2. Education : people go through the formal school institution to gain
education, which for many is limited up to 25 years of age. But mass
media is a so urce of lifelong education. The mass media provides
society with updated educational content on various subjects. Many
newspapers have a student edition, and radio channels have
educational services. Television too has dedicated channels for
education purp oses.
3. Socialization : It is only through media that we are exposed to diverse
cultures and social norms. This empowers people to understand the
norms and experiences of the group as a whole, which further aids in
communal harmony.
4. Entertainment : Ever y medium has a dedicated section for
entertainment, varying in degrees for different mediums. Look at
magazines or newspapers; they have a cartoon section or puzzles
section to lighten the mood. Broadcast media such as television and
radio concentrate majo rly on entertainment functions.
5. Cultural Transmission: Media is one such thing that keeps our
culture flowing. Knowing unknowingly through the media, we
become more aware of our culture and diverse cultures across the
world. It functions as a bridge bet ween the past and the present.
3.6.4 Functions of media according to different theorists
Harold Dwight Lasswell : Harold Dwight Lasswell, who is known for his
linear model of communication, states that there are three communication
functions.
Surveillan ce of the environment: This function helps understand the real
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31 Mass Society, Mass Culture and Mass Media Correlation function: This relates to how we see the world based on the facts
presented by the media.
Transmission of the social inheritance : social inheritance is the set of beliefs
that one learns in the culture in which they are mentioned. Media plays a
part in transmitting such values and norms in society.
Robert K. Merton: Robert K Merton, the founding father of modern
sociology, gave vi tal terms such as ‘middle -range theory and ‘dysfunctions.
According to Merton, media has some social functions that include.
1. Status conferral: Mass media bestows prestige and enhances the
authority of individuals and groups with it legitimizing their st atus.
For example, there must have been a time when a particular media
showed more positive news about a specific political party or their
candidate, thus legitimizing their status in the eyes of the people.
2. Enforcement of social norms: There are certai n social norms
necessary for the smooth functioning of society, but since they are not
part of religious practices or cultural ideas, they are often forgotten
from time to time. In such cases, the media helps enforce or remind
us of such norms. A norm is a n unwritten rule of behaviour. For
example, treating people from different communities, castes, and
creeds equally. Giving up the seat for elderly or pregnant women.
3. Narcotising Dysfunction: This particular function of the media has
gone largely unnotic ed. This function of media states that the more
time people devote to media and its products, the more concern they
develop over particular issues becomes superficial. This superficial
concern means that people get so used to seeing themselves
negatively t hat they fail to take any action at a personal level. For
example, environmental concerns of rising temperature are given so
much exposure in mass media that a certain section of society is numb
towards this issue.
C. Wright Mills: C. Wright mills was one of the great sociologists. His
work, such as ‘Power Elite’ and ‘Sociological Imagination’ is seminal.
He was the first person to identify the entertainment function of media.
3.7 CONCLUSION :
Media cannot be studied in isolation. It has to be studied in r elation to
society and culture because the media has helped shape culture and vice
versa. Media changes everything in society. As a media student, one must
be aware of the famous statement ‘medium is the massage’ by Marshall
McLuhan, which means media tech nology determines culture. Although
McLuhan gave more importance to the technology for cultural change,
other theorists suggested that it was indeed the media content that acts as a
catalyst in social change. When we look from a cultural perspective, the
Frankfurt school focuses too much on what media does to the masses. The
cultural studies perspective is too absorbed in understanding what the
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32 3.8 QUESTIONS
1. According to Kuhn, a paradigm is ______
a. Ethics
b. Laws of nature
c. What' s written in the constitution
d. underlying assumptions and operating principles
2. War of the world was a ________ that caused mass hysteria among
people
a. news alert on the television
b. news alert on radio
c. news alert in newspapers
d. news alert on th e internet
3. The ________ believes that the mass culture is bottom -up rather than
top-down.
a. Birmingham school
b. Frankfurt School
c. Toronto school
d. Chicago school
Answer in three -four lines
1. What is the mass society paradigm?
2. What are the function s of media according to different theorists?
3. How is school of cultural studies different from Frankfurt school of
thought?
Activity
Try and find out different communication models and jot down their
differences?
List down 5 items /ideas representing mass culture and elite culture each?
Explain the difference between pop culture and mass culture
3.9 REFERENCES
1. Cook, D. (1996). The culture industry revisited: Theodor W. Adorno
on mass culture. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
2. Fiske, John. Understa nding Popular Culture. Routledge, 2011.
3. Jeffres, L. W. (2015). Mass Communication Theories in a Time of
Changing Technologies. Mass Communication & Society, 18(5),
523–530.
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33 4
DEFINITION OF PR, GRUNIG’S FOUR
MODELS. EVENTS AND PSEUDO EVENTS
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Models of Public Relations
4.3 Press Agent/Publicity Model of Public Relations
4.2.1 Elaboration of the work of Phineas T. Barnum
4.2.2 History of Press Agentry
4.3 Public Information Model of Public Rela tions
4.3.1 History of the Model
4.3.1 Ivy Lee and the Rehabilitating of the Rockefellers
4.4 Two-way Asymmetric Public Relations model
4.5 Two-way symmetric model of Public Relations
4.6 Nature of Communication in the four models
4.7 Importance of Researc h in Public Relations
4.8 Professional Ethic in Public Relations
4.8.1 Characteristics of a PR professional
4.9 Introduction to events and pseudo -events
4.9.1 Daniel Boorstin and the pseudo events
4.9.2 Edward L. Bernays and Pseudo event
4.9.3 Advertising vs Public Relations
4.9.4 When advertising fails, PR works
4.10 Let’s Sum It Up
4.11 Questions
4.12 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying the first three units, one can have a foundational
understanding of Public Relations as a field, some clarity over mass society
and mass culture and an understanding of groups and their dynamics. In this
unit, you will learn that all of the previously taught parts are interconnected.
In the chapter, we will take a deep dive into the evolution of Public
Relations pract ices. One will be able to make out why Public Relations
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34 Public Relations Theory and Practice
34 1. Learn about the history and evolution of Public Relations
2. Understand the models of Public Relations
3. Judge which model is mor e ethical in nature today
4. Distinguish between events and pseudo -events
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the first unit itself, we have established that the field of Public Relations
is all about the art of convincing people, understanding their attitudes,
belief s, and culture, and persuading them to follow a certain course of
action. Public relation also involves certain ethics and procedures through
which one can influence, convince, and persuade groups. On any given day,
a Public Relations practitioner may help in preparing press releases, helping
a reporter with a story, organize press conferences, write a speech, or raise
funds for a cause.
These functions of a Public Relations Practitioner have evolved throughout
history. Even today, many names know Publi c Relations; some call its
public affairs, community relations, promotion, publicists, press agents, etc.
Let us look at Grunig and Hunt's four models of Public Relations, which
shows how PR evolved from an elementary method to such a sophisticated
practic e.
4.2 MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
There are four models of Public Relations practice given by Grunig and
Hunt, which can more or else also be the stages of evolution of Public
Relations throughout history. These models describe the field of various
organizational and management practices. They guide in creating plans,
programs, and other tactics. Before taking a look at the models, let us
understand what a model is? In scientific usage, a model is a representation
of reality. The human mind cannot under stand all aspects of reality at once.
Therefore, it divides them into fragments and tries to make sense of those
parts of reality to construct ideas. These ideas model reality and simplify it
by not including everything that reality encompasses.
The four models are:
The press agent/publicity model
The public -information model
The two -way asymmetric model
The two -way symmetric model
Analyzing all four models is the key to understanding the diversity we see
today in Public Relations practice. Many Public Rel ations practitioners or
departments practice only one or two models of Public Relations, whereas
few do it all. The history of PR will help us understand why only few do it
thoroughly. We know Public Relations is mostly persuasive communication
along with mutual understanding, but once we study the models, it will be
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35 Definition of Pr, Grunig’s Four Models. Events and
Pseudo Events 4.3THE PRESS AGENT/P UBLICITY MODEL
Introduction
A press agent is a kind of Public Relations practice under which the
pract itioner will try to spread the faith of the organization involved through
incomplete information, half -truth or distorted view. This is the reason it is
also called the publicity model and is known to serve the propaganda
function. The flow of information under this model is one -way, i.e., from
sender to receiver. Under this model of Public Relations, the sender is not
much concerned over the public's feedback, reviews, etc. The whole idea of
press agents is to keep their clients in the news or maintain an organization's
best reputation one way or the other.
4.3.1 Phineas T. Barnum
To this date, a very well -known press agent is Phineas T. Barnum; he was
a performer who formed the Barnum and Bailey circus. Barnum was famous
for coining the term "There is no such thing as bad publicity". The
newspapers in those times gave him column space and even editorial space
to share his stories with the masses. His stories in newspapers had almost
no news values and were merely there to keep any controversial buzz al ive.
He was known to write letters to the editor under a false name to call out
some of his own circus attractions as hoaxes just to create publicity. Such a
kind of Public Relations practice that gives away incorrect information or
half-truth is unethical as it does not follow standard Public Relations
procedures.
Although this model's past is tainted, given the way it was used, not all press
agents today can be labelled unethical. Many will keep their clients in the
news but only through ethical pract ices. This model is most suitable for
times when feedback is not needed. For example, there are times when an
organization wants just to inform its public about something, it could be a
film promotion, the launch of a new store or a release of statistical
information; then, in such a case press agent model is suitable.
4.3.2 History of Press agentry
This kind of Public Relations practice was prevalent during 1850 -1900. In
the 1830s, the first formal press agents first began to work. Press agents
have bee n around since the birth of the penny press in the 1830s, which gave
them the much -needed support to flourish. During this time Benjamin
Henry Day, an American newspaper publisher, founded the New York Sun,
the first penny press newspaper in the U.S. The p ricing of this newspaper
was unbelievably cheap compared to other newspapers of the time. The
pricing range was within the access of an ordinary man, which also invited
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36 Public Relations Theory and Practice
36 4.4 THE PUBL IC INFORMATION MODEL
As the name suggests, here the intent of the Public Relations practitioner is
not that of spreading propaganda, but it is of dissemination of information.
This dissemination of information is also not with persuasive intent. One
can say that the Public Relations person is essentially like a resident
journalist here, whose work is to report objectively about his organization
to the public. Such a model is helpful for information that people need to
know. The flow of communication in t his model is one -way, i.e. From the
sender to the receiver. Still, it differs from the press agent model because
the information provided here is more relevant for the public. For example,
during covid, health -related information was frequently disseminate d to the
public.
4.4.1 History of Public Information Model
The public information model came out at the beginning of the 19 century
and continued as the primary model of Public Relations until the 1920s.
This was the time after the industrial revolut ion when urbanization,
industrialization, and electrification had happened. However, after the
industrial revolution, wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few rich
businesspeople, who also controlled the government. Due to this the
average person was frequently manipulated into the hands of the politicians,
who were anyway working only for the benefit of the rich class. The
business cared more about wealth than worker's safety or public interest.
Any journalist who tried to create awareness or expose t he wrongdoings of
prominent businesspeople were labelled as a 'muckraker' (a derogatory
term).
During this time, Ivy Ledbetter Lee, a finance/ business journalist,
recognized the need to inform the public the truth about the organization.
His idea was simple, to tell the truth about an organization's activities, and
if the fact can cause more damage, one can change the behaviour of the
organization/individual to soften the blow and give a newer perspective to
people. Later on in his career, Ivy Lee went on to open his own PR firm
along with George Parker, who was also a publicist for the democratic party.
But Lee parted ways with his partner as he wanted to be more than just a
press agent
4.4.2 Ivy Lee and the Rehabilitating of the Rockefellers
In 191 3, 9,000 coal miners went on strike in southern Colorado. The
company for which these miners worked was also somewhat owned by the
Rockefellers. In 1914, an accidental shot caused a battle in which miners,
two women and eleven children were killed. This wa sn't good for the
company's reputation and the Rockefellers, who were the principal
stakeholders in the company. Ivy Lee advised the Rockefellers the practice
of openness and urged him to visit the camps to observe the ground
situation. This landmark move in Public Relations changed how PR was
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37 Definition of Pr, Grunig’s Four Models. Events and
Pseudo Events Overall, the public information model had taken over the press agent by
1920s. But a significant propaganda effort at the time of the world war was
to establish a new model that relied on scientific knowledge to help efforts
to persuade.
4.4 TWO -WAY ASYMMETR IC PUBLIC RELATIONS MODEL
At times, you may have wondered how Hitler in Germany or fascists around
the world could gain much broader public s upport for their cruel ideology.
Indeed, propaganda played an essential role in World War I and two.
Under this model, the function of the Public Relations practitioner is that of
scientific persuasion. This model is a tad bit similar to the press
agent/ publicity model. Here, the practitioner used social science theory and
research about how certain demography behaves and persuaded the public
to accept the organization's point of view. This model became famous when
people believed that mass persuasion was possible. Many believed that the
public could be persuaded in whatever direction the propagandist wished
(mass society).
If Public Relations were art for Ivy Lee, then it was science for Edward L
Bernays, also known as the father of Public Relations. H e wrote on topics
such as public opinion, propaganda, and Public Relations. He changed the
concept of PR from simply 'informing the public' to 'understanding the
needs of the public'. However, this model in today's day and age claims to
understand the publ ics but instead it tells the management what people will
accept, rather can asking the administration to change according to the
public. This model is best suited for marketing a product, influencing
legislation because in such fields the organization tell s the public what is
best suited for them.
4.5 TWO -WAY SYMMETRI C MODEL OF PUBLIC
RELATIONS
The kind of Public Relations practice that we practice today, is mostly like
the two -way symmetric model. Under this model, the Public Relations
practitioner ac ts like a mediator between organizations and their publics.
Here the goal is to bring about mutual understanding through the use of
social science theory. Here theories that can enhance communication are
used to communicate better with the publics rather t han the use of theories
that will simply persuade people into doing anything. Here mutual
understanding is the main characteristic of Public Relations.
The origin of this model is difficult to trace, but the first educator to
conceptualize the symmetric model of Public Relations was Scott M. Cutlip
along with Allen Center. Cutlip wrote textbooks that advocated a two -way
symmetric model. In their first edition Cutlip and Center used the term
'Public Relations to describe the principles and practice of com munications
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38 Public Relations Theory and Practice
38 This model is best suited for when a firm wants to maintain social
responsibility.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Explain any Two Models of Public Relations
____________________________________________________________
_______________________ _____________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
Tracing the history, explain what is Public Information Model?
__________________________________________________ __________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
4.6 NATURE OF COMMUN ICATION IN FOUR MODE LS
Recall the communication model that you studied in the last unit. Try
recalling all the basic elements involved. There was a sender, message,
medium and receiver and an element of feedback.
Looking at the first Public Relations two models, the communication is
always one -way, i.e., from or ganization to the public. This is because the
practitioner of these two models emphasizes more telling than listening. For
the other two models, both two way asymmetric and two -way symmetric
models, communication flows in both directions i.e., an element o f feedback
is the key here. Meanwhile, two -way symmetric communication is also
considered as dialogic rather than monologic. This is because both the
organization and the public can influence each other and change each other's
behaviour for the better.
4.7 IMPORTANCE OF RESE ARCH IN PUBLIC
RELATIONS
Whenever one is passing on or giving a piece of information to someone,
that information has to come from somewhere; hence in modern Public
Relations, research is an essential part. If you want to know what kind of
Public Relations one practices, you can look at their research, and that will
give you an idea of the model of Public Relations they follow. Now all
Public Relations practitioners give information to the public, but their
intention may differ. Research is an integral part of the two -way asymmetric
and symmetric model of Public Relations. This is because press agents
usually twist the truth for their own benefit. The research work is minimal
under the public information model since they follow the journa list model
of preparing information for the unknown public. They may, at times, do
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39 Definition of Pr, Grunig’s Four Models. Events and
Pseudo Events person to grasp. But for the most part, such practitioners have little idea
about what is ha ppening to the materials they prepare.
Meanwhile, in the two -way symmetric model, formative research is
particularly important to understand the needs and behaviours of the public.
This research can give an idea of what the public thinks about the
organi zation. The PR can then convey and explain to the management that
they will change or tweak their policies favoring public views. Meanwhile,
the effect of any change can then be studied through evaluative research in
a symmetric model. It will help measure if the efforts have improved the
public's understanding of the organization and vice versa.
4.8 PROFESSIONAL ETH ICS IN PR
Ethics is concerned with what is morally good and evil or right or wrong. If
we look at Public Relations, people are especially sens itive about ethics,
because many assume that the work of a Public Relations practitioner is
unethical. Thus, a Public Relations professional will go out of their way to
prove they are ethical.
Ethical practitioners do not try and get away with what they wa nt. They
always try to be trustworthy and not injure others in any way.
Any ethical act too, should not have adverse consequences upon others.
4.8.1Characteristics of a PR professional
Values: A PR practitioner should always put the idea of serving others first,
rather than thinking about his vested interest.
Contacts: Every organization or an individual who subscribes to PR
services, whether keeping an in -house publicist or through an agency, will
expect you to have contacts in different organizations of their need. For
example: if you work for any of the big four IT companies in India, you will
need to have contacts in the media so that during the quarterly results,
accurate information can be disseminated in time through the media to all
the stakeholders .
Knowledge: PRs are needed in many fields, from celebrities to politicians,
to sports stars, to technology -intensive firms. A professional should
understand the jargon of his field and have a well -established body of
knowledge to apply it to their work. F or example, one cannot become a PR
in stock exchange without understanding how the stock market works. If
you are a PR of a footballer, you should understand how that sports work or
the difficulties one faces in sports.
Technical skills: Many technical ski lls are needed in PR since job
opportunities are in almost every field. One has to keep updating oneself
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40 4.9 INTRODUCTION TO EVENTS AND PSEUDO -EVENTS
So far, studying the four units we have understood the broader functions of
a Public Relations practitioner. In this part, we will discuss the idea of
events and pseudo -events in Public Relations at length. One of the frequent
activities of Public Relations practitioners is to create a c ontrolling situation
around the situations and the circumstances while conducting unique events
in which the organization can interact with its public. Instead of waiting for
a particular day or a situation that will give rise to such an opportunity, PR
professionals orchestrate a situation to create and conduct an event in a way
that will be beneficial for the organization and help it interact with its public.
Such events are called Pseudo -events.
It is at times a win -win situation for everyone since th e organization and its
clients are enthusiastic about special events. For the most part even the
public who participate highly appreciate them.
4.9.1 Daniel Boorstin and the pseudo events
Daniel Boorstin created the term 'pseudo -event'. He termed certa in news or
information as synthetic. He believed that certain things in society did not
occur spontaneously but were a result of planned efforts. These pseudo -
events are part of strategic communication and Public Relations exercises.
According to Boorstin, the key difference between an event and a pseudo -
event is that the mass media never influence the former. For example,
crimes or ecological disasters are real events that need media coverage.
Pseudo -events are mostly staged in a very media -friendly or public -friendly
manner. It requires a lot of planning and needs to be announced in advance
to start getting coverage before its very launch. Such events usually lack
newsworthiness and therefore have to be designed in such a way that it can
be shown over t he news. One can plan an event by bringing in a celebrity
or a celebrity with an ongoing controversy to attract attention to such events.
Pseudo -events are not just conducted for celebrities; since it is a planned
process and it wants attention to bring in views, politicians also practice it.
One must have noticed that ahead of the elections, suddenly, there are more
political controversies. Every politician will try to arrange campaigns and
events to convey their feelings on the topic and take the moral high ground
to win support. Campaigning, speeches, and debates are all part of pseudo -
events.
In his famous book, The Image; A Guide to Pseudo -events in America,
Daniel Boorstin raised some serious philosophical and ethical questions
about 'special ev ents' and its impact on our perception of reality.
It is easier to get confused between propaganda and pseudo -events, but the
key difference is that propaganda often bends facts to keep it away from the
public eye. In contrast, a pseudo -event bombards o ne with artificial facts
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41 Definition of Pr, Grunig’s Four Models. Events and
Pseudo Events 4.9.2 Edward L. Bernays and Pseudo event
A company named Lucky Strike Cigarettes was having a problem with its
sales figures that did not give the company the return that was expected.
The reason was the forest green packaging of the cigarettes, which many
women believed clashed with their outfits. Since the company had already
invested a lot in green advertising packaging, changing the packing colour
was not an option. Young Public Relations pract itioner Edward L. Bernays
recommended, "If you won't change the package's colour, change the colour
of fashion -- to green." Later Bernays planned a local charity with a 'green
ball' theme. He convinced text manufacturers to sponsor green fashions fall
luncheon for fashion editors and invited art historians and psychologists to
write in detail about the significance of the color green. This is how he very
systematically made green as the fashion color of the 1934 season.
Even today, people assume that wh atever news they read in a newspaper or
watch on TV is gathered by reporters who practice ethical and objective
news reporting. But for a long time, we have failed to see that the
information is commodified.
After this, the historian Daniel Boorstin coine d the term pseudo -events to
describe events that seemed authentic but were staged for ulterior motives.
4.9.3 Advertising vs Public Relations
Whatever we read sounded much like an advertisement so to keep our ideas
clear, let us examine the different b etween advertisements and Public
Relations. An advertiser will start with purchasing a space to showcase its
message, and this could be a newspaper space, a tv ad space etc. Whereas a
Public Relations practitioner will gain attention through publicity by
organizing various events, functions, shows, and interviews. Even PR
practitioners will try and get celebrities to their events to gain more
attention. Organizations that advertise will always have more control over
the message they want to convey to the ma sses, but this is not the case in
Public Relations. In PR it is the opinion -makers (influencers, TV hosts) etc,
and how they portray or see your organization will get conveyed. Public
Relations is less costly than advertisements, but PR practitioners alway s
have to be on their toes and highly creative. They should be able to put their
message across to the publics in a meaningful way to have the impact they
desire.
4.9.4 When advertising fails, PR works
In 1930, De Beers company had a smaller market for luxury buyers who
would buy diamonds. The company wanted every commoner to buy
diamonds, but since the diamond is considered a luxury item, few thought
of purchasing it. The company launched a PR campaign to change the
diamond's image to something more 'e ssential and accessible. The company munotes.in

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42 Public Relations Theory and Practice
42 created stories about celebrity proposals and gifts between lovers, in which
the size of the diamond was considered as key to measuring the love of the
one giving it. These stories were then circulated through a fashion
magazine, as resulted in a highly successful campaign. The result of this
campaign can be seen even today, as diamonds are one of the necessary
aspects of a marriage proposal.
4.10 LET’S SUM IT UP
Public Relations have not always been the same; with chan ging times,
various aspects of Public Relations communication have changed. Some
good and unpleasant events in history shaped Public Relations ethics.
Because of the kind of PR that was practised earlier, the field of Public
Relations is seen as unethical at times. Although one may always think that
the two -way asymmetrical model is the best way to practice Public
Relations, in reality, there is no one best way. For contrasting times and
conditions, the best approach should be based upon the nature of the
environment and its demands.
4.11 QUESTIONS
1. __________ model of Public Relations is dialogic rather than
monologic
a. Press agent/publicity model
b. Two -way asymmetrical model
c. public information model
d. Two -way symmetrical model
2. _____________ w ill gain attention through publicity by organizing
various events, functions, shows, and interviews.
a. Public Relations
b. advertising
c. Marketing
d. Journalism
3. ______________ are mostly staged in a very media -friendly or
public -friendly manner.
a. Events
b. ecological disasters
c. crimes
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43 Definition of Pr, Grunig’s Four Models. Events and
Pseudo Events Explain in five to six sentences
1. Explain similarities and differences between events and pseudo -
events?
2. Which models of PR practice two -way communication and why?
3. What are the characterist ics of Public Relations that make it different
from advertising?
4. What are the characteristics of a PR professional?
4.12 REFERENCES
1. Boorstin, D. J. (1961). The image, or, what happened to the American
dream. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
2. Dayan , D., & Katz, E. (1996). Media events: The live broadcasting of
history. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
3. Grunig, J. and Hunt, T., 1984. Managing Public Relations. New York:
Holt, Rinehart, and Winston
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44 Public Relations Theory and Practice
44 5
ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF PR IN THE
WORLD AND INDIA
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Public Relations in early civilization
5.3 Origin of the modern PR
5.3.1 World War one shaped Public Relations
5.3.2 World War Two Shaped Public Relations
5.4 International professional Publ ic Relations body
5.4.1 The International Public Relations Association
5.4.2 The Public Relations Society of America
5.5 Public Relations in India
5.5.1 Development of Indian Public Relations during World War One
5.5.2 Development of Indian Public Relation s during World War Two
5.6 Indian Companies and Public Relations
5.7 Public Relations in Independent India
5.8 Professional Indian PR Bodies
5.8.1 Public Relations Society of India: Boost to PR education,
Known PR Publishers, P.R. Publications by the India n Authors
5.8.2 Public Relations Consultants Association of India
5.8.3 PSRI Vs PCRI
5.9 Professionalism in PR
5.10 Conclusion
5.11 Questions
5.12 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we will see how diverse Public Relations, how it developed so
many f acets to it that includes creating brands, knowing public opinion,
convincing publics, managing crisis, maintains positive image. This will
explain how Public Relations came to be what we see and practice today.
Working through this unit, you should be abl e to
1. Trace the history of Public Relations, across the world munotes.in

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45 Origin and Growth of PR in The World and India 2. Interprets how world war changed the face of Public Relations
3. Examine the path through which Public Relations developed in India
4. Explain what made Public Relations so effective that every company,
organization today resort to it.
5. Measure the contribution of the Professional PR bodies to the field
and the practice of Public Relations in modern times.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will look at the journey of Public Relations, right from its
origin to its present form. One should know about the origin of this field
because this knowledge helps bridge the gap between historical narrative
and theoretical developments in Public Relations. Understanding the origin
also helps one sit uate Public Relations well within the mass communication
bubble. Looking at the origin of Public Relations, one can say that this field
didn't develop in a vacuum. Until now, we have understood that since
modern Public Relations in its true sense developed after World War two,
it has become necessary to under Public Relations history in social and
cultural context.
5.2 PUBLIC RELATIONS IN EARLY CIVILIZATI ON
People practised Public Relations even before the term was invented and
long before there was any medium to communicate with the masses. Certain
archaeological evidence describes how Public Relations were practised in
the early civilization. A farm bulletin discovered in Iraq dated back to 1800
B.C had instructions on agriculture practice and proc edure. Some aspects of
Public Relations are also seen in the description of the king's spies in ancient
India. Occasionally, the spies would go in disguise to know the common
man's opinion about the ruling king. The spies were also used to spread
favorable rumors for the king. On the other hand, in ancient Greeks, much
importance was given to 'public will', while the Romans too believed that
the will of the people represents the will of the god. This shows that there
was always a need for a mediator or a br idge between an organization
(political, economic, or social) and its publics.
In England, too, the king had a Public Relations officer under the
designation of 'Lord’s Chancellor', which was known as the 'keepers of the
king's conscience'. They always provided the kings/queens with an
unfamiliar perspective. This facilitated easy communication between the
government and the people. Wealthy traders also used this idea, including
artisans and other society members whose professional involved direct
publi c dealing.
5.3 ORIGIN OF THE MO DERN PR
Public Relations was used for the spread of religious ideas. Paul Apostle,
who is often considered to be the most important person in the history of munotes.in

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46 Public Relations Theory and Practice
46 Christianity, spread his religious views and belief in society. O nce Johannes
Guttenberg invented the printing press, Apostle's ideas could be spread with
much more speed and accuracy. The invention of the printing press was not
only a key milestone in mass communication, but it aided the growth of
many of its subfields —some trace the origin of modern Public Relations to
the Americans. In America, there was a time when circuses travelled from
city to city to put up their show, every time they got to a new town; they
needed someone to promote their show. This gave birth t o the role of
publicists who'd specialize in promoting circus and theatrical performances.
But if one has to go by official records, it is widely known that the term
Public Relations first appears in the 1897 Yearbook of the Railway
Literature.
5.3.1 Wor ld War one shaped Public Relations
Many countries that had more active roles in World War 1 saw faster growth
of Public Relations activities in the run -up to the war. In Germany, Guster
Mevissen partly led the Public Relations crusade in Western German y. He
proposed that public criticism of business companies should be countered
by the greatest possible publicity. Another industrialist, Alfred Krupp, was
also known to take Public Relations very seriously when he wrote to his
representatives to "conduct your business enterprise in the public".
Meanwhile, in the U.S., the government set up a committee on public
information during the war to gain public consent. The committee was set
up to convince the need to have the war and for the Americans to be
involv ed in it. This gave birth to the idea of propaganda, which is a part of
Public Relations.
In the last unit, we saw that the work of a press agent is to convince people
through the use of propaganda. Propaganda is broadly an effort to change
the minds a nd hearts of the people and make them think in a particular way
or believe in a specific cause. With propaganda, America participated in
both the wars and still maintained a good image among its publics.
America continued using Public Relations throug hout the war. With
America's participation in the war, it did not just need acceptance from the
people towards the war, but it also required a workforce. The U.S. needed
Americans to come forward and fight for their cause. During this time,
advertising and movies were already gaining popularity among the masses.
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson saw an opportunity to harness these recent
technologies to support America's late coming into the war. Wilson then set
up a committee on 'Public information' that, thro ugh propaganda, could
raise funds, motivate people to join the war and collect material resources.
The committee was headed by investigative journalist George Creel and
included Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays. Lee and Barneys published a book
titled "Crystalli zing Public Opinion" in 1928. The message crafted by this
committee implied that participating or supporting the war is the fight for
justice and the peace of humanity. The committee effectively portrayed the
other side as evil and exploited people's feeli ngs of patriotism towards their
country through use of Public Relations. They promoted their messages
through movies, posters, and even speeches. munotes.in

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47 Origin and Growth of PR in The World and India However, the committee was disbanded after the war since people realized
the propaganda techniques of the g overnment and the working of the
committee started showing dwindling responses from the public.
5.3.2 World War two shaped Public Relations
During the second world war, the American government directly did not
sanction any propaganda machine. In fact, it established an office of war
information, headed by Elmer Davis, a former radio newscaster, to mould
public opinion in line with what the government wanted them to think. One
of these groups, The Writers' War Board, honed their techniques to such a
degree and operated at such an elevated level of output that they are
frequently cited as one of the most excellent propaganda machines in
history. The government used more subtle ways to drive propaganda and
utilized every means this time to promote their me ssages. They sought to
increase patriotism and support for the war and keep morale up. In doing
so, they perfected various techniques used in the past.
5.4 INTERNATIONAL PR OFESSIONAL PUBLIC
RELATIONS BODIES
5.4.1 The International Public Relations Asso ciation:
This was established in the year 1955, with the intention to organize Public
Relations into the transnational society. Its main objective is to improve the
standards of P.R. practitioners worldwide.
The main goal here is to advance trusted commun ication and promote
ethical practice in Public Relations. This is a global organization, and it
represents individuals professionals. IPRA is recognized as an international
non-governmental organization by the United Nations and enjoys a
consultative statu s by the Economic and Social Council.
5.4.2 Public Relations Society of America:
It is one of the leading professional organizations in America that works
under the communications field. The Committee advocates for industry
excellence and ethical conduc t. It also provides its members with many
learning opportunities that can, later on, help them in their careers. It has a
total of 30,000 members. It is represented by 110 Chapters and 14
Professional Interest Sections and on nearly 375 college and univers ity
campuses through its student organization, the Public Relations Student
Society of America (PRSSA)
5.5 PUBLIC RELATIONS IN INDIA
In India, Public Relations, as mentioned above, was practised even during
the times when the monarchy was prevalent. Howe ver, it truly developed
once newspapers came to India. The credit of bringing the first newspaper
in India in 1780 goes to William Augustus Hickey. The intention then was
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48 Public Relations Theory and Practice
48 However, as the newspaper circulation increased slowly, it also became a
means to educate and enlighten people. Newspapers highlighted various
issues that were socially important to be addressed. It acted as a mediator
for the growth of public opinion. Being a famous medium at that time, it
was highly influential in swaying public opinion.
5.5.1 Development of Indian Public Relations during World War One
One such Indian who mastered the art of Public Relations in its true sense
was Gandhi. During 1919 -1947, which is also called the Gandhian era in
Indian history, played a massive role in Indian history. Mahatma Gandhi,
one after the other, launched movements (non -cooperation, civil
disobedience, and Quit India), to mobilize public opinion and support. He
communica ted with the masses through newspapers in India and brought
India closer to freedom with every effort.
The British government in India too used the art of Public Relations to
maintain its foothold in the country. It set up several publicity boards were
set up throughout the country, with the first Central Publicity Board at the
headquarters. This was done to keep the people of India informed about the
progress of War one since India actively participated in the war. This was
the first ever organized Publ ic Relations set -up for the Indian government.
Later on, it was renamed as Central Bureau of information, and was further
changed to the Bureau of Public Information and acted as a link between
the government and the press
5.5.2 Public Relations During W orld War two in India
The second World War, 1939 -1945, gave much impetus to the government's
publicity machinery in India. The Bureau of Public Information and All
India Radio were placed under a new organization called the Directorate of
Information and Broadcasting, boosting war publicity. A systematic and
organized Public Relations practice was first seen in the Indian Railways.
The Great Indian Peninsular (GIP) Railways carried out a campaign in
England in the 20s to attract tourists to India. This Bur eau held open -air
shows at fairs and festivals and advertised in newspapers and journals. It
also participated in exhibitions abroad to popularize the Indian Railways to
attract tourists.
After the war, in India, J. Natarajan was the first India n in 1941, to be
appointed as a Principal Information Officer. The organization first saw
changes in its name, to Press Information Bureau in 1946 and later, the way
it functioned changed too, upon attainment of Independence. The key
function of the Bureau was giving factual information on the policies,
programmes and activities of the government along with interpreting the
facts and government policies.
India's freedom struggle in itself is proof that without persuasive
communication from the right forces and right people, freedom from
oppressive forces wouldn't have been possible. The communication used by
freedom fighters cannot wholly be termed as Public Relations but did have
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49 Origin and Growth of PR in The World and India CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
When did modern PR begin?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________ ____ _______________
____________________________________________________________
How did the World War change PR?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________________ _______ _______________
____________________________________________________________
5.6 PUBLIC RELATIONS IN INDIAN COMPANIES
Soon the idea of keeping the public informed, and gaining their trust and
support, which was once used during the world war, was later on seen to be
adopted by many companies. One such example is Tata I ron and Steel
Company (TISCO) which went into production in 1912. From the very
beginning, the company was involved in community relations. They built
the town of Jamshedpur and provided this town with all the necessary
facilities. They also promoted the c ultural and economic development of the
community. TATA has always been the forerunner in introducing employee
welfare schemes.
The practise of Public Relations was started by railways. Railways was built
with the intention to carry raw materials to var ious locations from the Indian
ports. But this was a costly affair since India has vast coastlines. They soon
realized that to recover the cost, railways will have to open its door for
passengers who wish to travel long distance. This led to promoting Indi an
railways' message and inviting people to choose railways as a mode of
transport for long distances.
5.7 PUBLIC RELATIONS IN INDEPENDENT INDI A
After the Independence, there was a completely new political and economic
environment. It was the first time t hat India went into elections, and
members of Parliament and the State Legislatures were elected for the first
time based on adult franchise. The industries, too had to adopt an Industrial
Policy resolution and Industrial development and regulation act. Th ese
factors aided conscious and deliberate Public Relations. One can trace the
practice of new age Public Relations to this era. In the fifties and the early
sixties, companies like Burmah -Shell, Esso, Caltex, Dunlop, Philips,
Hindustan Levers, and Indian Oxygen set up departments to start Public
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50 Public Relations Theory and Practice
50 5.8 PROFESSIONAL BOD IES IN P.R.
There are two major professional P.R. associations In India.
The Public Relations Society of India (PRSI)
Public Relations Consultant s Association of India (PCRAI).
5.8.1 PRSI
Public Relations Society of India (PRSI) was established with an objective
of promoting the recognition of Public Relations as a profession and in the
year 1958. Its key goal was to promote Public Relations as a strategic
management function. This society worked as an informal body up to 1966,
with its headquarters in Mumbai. It was established by, father figure of
professional P.R. in India, Kali H. Mody.
There was another professional body in Kolkata that was d oing an excellent
job in eastern India. However, during the first All India PR Conference in
1968, people of the Public Relations circle decided to disband the regional
organization and strength one single body thus, PRSI was formed in 1969.
The members of the PRSI are Public Relations practitioners from
Multinational companies, Government departments, the Public and Private
sector, Academics and P.R. consultants. The society adopted a code of
ethics in its first All India Public Relations Conference in Del hi in the year
1968. Since this Code was earlier adopted in 1965 by the International
Public Relations Association, thus it is known as the" Code of Athens" in
Athens, Greece among the World Community of
Public Relations. The Code is hugely based on the Un ited Nations' chapter
on Human Relations.
Boost to P.R. Education.
Once the importance of Public Relations was understood, it became
necessary to develop this art as a field in education so that the art and science
of Public Relations can be taught to stu dents. Right after the Public
Relations conference of 1968, the founding members of PRSI invited
American Professor Dr. Scott Cutlip to conduct a Management
Development Program in collaboration with the (IIMC) Indian Institute of
Mass Communication.
In th e beginning, Public Relations was taught through workshops and
seminars. In 1973 a fresher course of two months was organized by the
PRSI Delhi. Later on, refresher courses were also organized in Calcutta,
Bombay and Madras. The Delhi Chapter organized fou r P.R. courses
between 1973 and 1976. Meanwhile, a post -graduate programme was
organized at the IIMC, New Delhi, by the PSRI. During this time, the PRSI
introduced Public Relations as a component of the management
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51 Origin and Growth of PR in The World and India Staff College of India, Hyderabad and the Indian Institute of Management,
Ahmedabad. Later on, in 1990, PRSI set up the India Foundation for P.R.
Education and Research to provide an academic and professional base for
education and training. This was a planned effort that began taking shape
after almost ten years of planning and in consultation with the International
Public Relations Association and similar foundations in the United
Kingdom and the United States.
P.R. Publicatio ns by the Indian Authors
Although Public Relations in India was practiced widely, it was not until
the mid -1970s that publication based on Indian experience was available.
The main source was American and British authors for the Indian
professional. PRSI, understood this gap and published conference volumes
that contained contributions from Indian Public Relations Practitioner. In
India, the first Indian Public Relations publication was by JM Kaul. There
were many authors later on. A few key famous Public R elations authors
include Baldeo Sahai, his book 'Public Relations: a scientific approach was
published by SCOPE publications. Another known book is by Anil Basu's
Public Relations: Problems and Prospects. 'How to be a good PRO' another
well-known book was published by PRSI president C.V. Narasimha Reddy.
A Public Relations Manual was published by Sushi Bahl, the Chairperson
of the PRSI Bombay Chapter. All of the above authors were closely
associated with the PRSI and contributed highly to add to the profess ion
with a body of knowledge from an Indian perspective.
5.8.2 PRCAI
Public Relations Consultants Association of India (PRCAI) is a trade
organization representing Public Relations consultancy firms in India.
PCRAI was formed in the year 2001, to establ ish a benchmark standard of
knowledge, ethics, and expertise. One of its objectives is to encourage and
promote the progression of Public Relations in Industry India., Society
endorses and supports professional and ethical services. The firm is
affiliated with the International Consultancy Communication Organization
(ICCO), headquartered in the U.K., and is also an international association
for all national communication consultancy organizations
PSRI vs PCRI
PRSI includes active members who are Public Rel ations practitioners from
public undertakings in India, government departments and other small
agencies who are often approached for advertising by various public sector
undertakings. The PCRAI on the other hand has members who are working
for private orga nizations as Public Relations practitioners and P.R. firms.
Both of the professional bodies work closely with experts in the field of
academics and industry to promote and extend the body of knowledge. munotes.in

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52 Public Relations Theory and Practice
52 Which is done through case studies, research projects in collaboration with
academia and set benchmarks for bettering the state of the profession.
5.9 PROFESSIONALISM IN P.R.
Public Relations didn't just get a boost from India's Independence but also
from the 1991 policy of liberalization, privatization, a nd globalization. Ever
since 1991, the establishment of various multinational companies, rising
competition, the open market gave rise to Public Relations and developed
the art of dealing with the publics further. The market, which was once
under the full government control, witnessed sudden increase in market
players and consumers. This created a need for the organizations and
companies to build a reputation in order to gain more access to the newer
market and beat the competition. This gave rise to many P ublic Relations
and advertising agencies in the country. MNCs that were from the other
countries and knew less about the Indian market, took help of such agencies
to gain a foothold in the country. These companies were in need of
professional guidance to c reate a friendly environment for themselves. Soon
one saw some of the global agencies like the Ogilvy & Mather opening their
P.R. arm in the country. Hindustan Thompson' IPAN and Taj Hotel's Good
Relations also began their offices around that time.
P.R. i ncreasingly was also seen as a launchpad branding and to manage the
situation of crisis communication. The PR agencies engaged by global
corporates, tried smoothing out the process for their clients by giving them
a hang of the situation in times of crisis . The PR firms produced strategies
for sailing through tough times. In fact, they also developed the art of
advocacy for influencing the legislation. The Public Relations agencies that
represented these international clients went through some criticism fro m
adversary groups during our freedom struggle, since these groups were
against globalisation of India. The journey of global corporations like Pepsi,
Coke, MacDonald, KFC, is a good example of how they managed to hold
their position in India despite backl ashes from people and groups from time
to time.
5.10 LET’S SUM UP
The history of Public Relations can be traced back to the Egyptians,
Romans, and Greeks. In the last unit, we saw about the famous American
scholars that contributed to the field of Publi c Relations. In this unit, we
studied its origin. We noticed that Public Relations were used throughout
history at different points of time for different purposes, ranging from
promoting religion to fighting a war. Today it has evolved into a strategic
image building for corporate and persuasion for politicians. In India, its
origin goes back to the mythological stories, while during the British rule
Public Relations was used to gain Independence. All the methods once used
by our freedom fighters and Mahatm a Gandhi are part of certain Public
Relations activities that have become part of modern Public Relations
practices. Certain milestones in Indian history changed the way we
practised Public Relations. The kind of Public Relations practised after munotes.in

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53 Origin and Growth of PR in The World and India Independen ce changed once we opened our economy to the world in 1991.
In around 1958, Public Relations activities got a further boost after the
establishment of the Public Relations society of India in Bombay.
5.11 QUESTIONS
1. The communication used by freedom fig hters cannot wholly be
termed as Public Relations but did have ________, which has its roots
in the P.R. field.
a. Emotion
b. Conviction
c. Persuasive communication
d. Lying
2. __________is a trade organization representing Public Relations
consultancy fir ms in India.
a. PCRAI
b. PIB
c. PSRI
d. SEBI
3. Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays published a book titled _______in 1928.
a. Game theory
b. World war and its effects
c. People’s choice
d. Crystallizing Public Opinion
CHECH YOUR PROGRESS
How did Indian Public Rela tions practice evolve during World War One
and two? Answer in three -four sentences?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ ________
_____________________________________________ _______________
Distinguish between PSRI and PCRI?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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54 Public Relations Theory and Practice
54 How did the invention of the printing press boost Public Relations?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________ ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
5.12 REFERENCES
Bahl, Sushil, et al. “Growth of Public Relations in India.” eGyankosh , 5
December 2018, http://egyankosh.ac.in//handle/123456789/7700.
Accesse d 22 September 2022.
Broom, Glen M., and Bey -Ling Sha. Cutlip and Center's Effective Public
Relations . Pearson, 2012.
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55 6
PROPAGANDA PUBLIC
OPINION AND PUBLICITY
Unit Structure
6.0 Objective of the study
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Advertising, Public Opinion and Publici ty
6.2.1 Public Opinion – impact and relevance in society
6.2.2 Opinion.
6.3 Public Relations, Advertising, Publicity, and Public Opinion
Concepts
6.3.1 Forming an Opinion
6.3.2 What Factors Influence Public Opinion?
6.3.3 Public Opinion, Propaganda, and P ublic Relations
6.4 Public Opinion Characteristics
6.5 Impact and Relevance
6.6 Propaganda: methods and implications
6.7 Methods of Propaganda
6.0 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
Working through this unit, you should be able to:
x To define public opinion
x To explain how propaganda is different from Public Relations;
x To define and explain the role of social marketing in Public Relations;
and
x To list the techniques used to gauge public opinion
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication is a multi -dimensional or multi -faceted discipline. With
society's increasing complexities and rivalry, communication professionals
must face the challenges of making their communications more clearly
focused and appealing to their target audiences in orde r to elicit the intended
response.
You were exposed to the meanings of Public Relations and the use of
phrases like "publicity," "public affairs," and "business communications" in
the previous Unit. You should be familiar with the fundamentals of Public munotes.in

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56 Public Relations Theory and Practice
56 Relations, as well as the numerous 'publics' and Public Relations values, by
now. We'll look at terminology like advertising, publicity, and propaganda,
as well as their functions in Public Relations, in this unit. We'll start by
defining each of these conce pts, then explain how they relate to one another.
A quick overview of the specific roles that advertising, publicity, and Public
Relations play in specific scenarios can help you appreciate the similarities
and contrasts between them. You'll also learn abo ut the media's role in
advertising and publicity, as well as the concept of corporate advertising.
Another topic we'll cover is public opinion and its significance in Public
Relations. This will assist you in gauging public opinion by utilising several
public opinion research tools. You will also be introduced to the concept of
social marketing in Public Relations.
6.2 ADVERTISING, PUB LIC OPINION AND PUBL ICITY
Three essential parts of communication are Propaganda, publicity, and
Public Relations.
They are c omparable and interconnected in terms of their core goal, despite
their conceptual differences. Persuasive communication is inherent in both
of them. They want to use mass media to deliver information to a certain
audience in a coordinated manner. Academic s and practitioners define
advertising, publicity, and Public Relations differently. The emphasis in the
definitions distinguishes them in form, but in fact, they all revolve around
the well -known communication theory, which is depicted in the picture
below:

Propaganda, publicity, and Public Relations inputs provide value to a
product, service, idea, concept, or issue in the minds and hearts of the target
group. They offer relevant and appropriate information and benefits in order
to influence their attit udes and behaviours. It is a transformation that is both
desirable and beneficial.
Nonetheless, they are often misconstrued and lumped together as Public
Relations, which isn't accurate because Public Relations isn't the same as
publicity, propaganda, or advertising. Each of these is a component of
Public Relations, but each has its own set of restrictions.
The broadcast of information about an organisation in order to attract
attention or to publicise products or activities is known as publicity. The
goal of publicity is to gain notoriety, build a positive image, and get
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57 Propaganda Public Opinio n and Publicity approval from the target audience. Advertising is the purchase of space in
print, on television, or on billboards in order to encourage product sales, ID
card acceptance, or goodwill.
Public Relations, on the other hand, has a far broader scope and impact, and
is more nuanced and persuasive in nature. As we will see later, it employs
both publicity and advertising strategies. We'll look at each of these in turn.
"Propaganda is talking wi th and persuading someone to do something -
usually buying a product or service - and frequently giving them something
to think about."
6.2.1 Public Opinion – impact and relevance in society
In the context of public opinion, a 'public' is a collection of p eople with
similar interests who have a shared viewpoint on a contentious issue. "A
spontaneous gathering of people in response to a certain kind of event," says
Kuppuswamy. To further explain the concept, issue/controversy is what
binds the public togethe r. It is important to highlight, however, that the
members of the 'public' are diverse and not a homogeneous group. The term
'public' is not constrained by size or geographical borders.
Let's take a look at the term "public opinion" and its varied hues.
6.2.2 Opinion
"An opinion, judgement, or evaluation formed in the mind concerning a
particular issue," according to Webster's Seventh New Collegiate
Dictionary. An opinion is more powerful than an impression, but it is less
powerful than positive knowledge. It signifies a well -considered judgement
that is subject to debate. A 'sentiment' is a more or less fixed opinion, and if
held strongly, a 'conviction'.
The term 'view' refers to an opinion that is influenced by prejudice in some
way.
All expressions of a belief held in common by members of a group of people
on a problematic issue or general topics are referred to as public opinion.
The process of forming public opinion is based on individual viewpoints
voiced by members of a group. Whose opinions are swaye d by the group's
influence?
Public opinion, according to the Dictionary of Mass Communications, is the
expression of all members of a group who are paying attention to a certain
issue. The process begins with a clash of individual mindsets and views
about a problem.
6.3 PUBLIC RELATIONS , ADVERTISING, PUBLI CITY,
AND PUBLIC OPINION C ONCEPTS
Public opinion is frequently voiced following a quarrel, dispute, or debate
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58 system. When a curren t problem or matter of some relevance develops
about which members of the group are likely to dispute, public opinion
emerges. An issue is an event or incident that threatens to disrupt a group's
dominant values, beliefs, and attitudes, causing more or les s of a crisis and
provoking public debate and expression.
One such topic that has begun to confront the Indian public is reservations
for the backward classes and the question of merit. Nuclear material testing
that pollutes the environment is an internati onal issue that has prompted
individuals all over the world to take sides in favour of or against it.
Similarly, the issue of nuclear non -proliferation and India's position on it,
as well as the GATT agreement, have sparked a lot of debate.
The majority of a group's view is not the same as public opinion. On any
issue, the interested public will split into two or more opposing viewpoints,
which may not necessarily be mutually exclusive or contradictory. The
cause of public opinion is determined by the attit udes and previous
experiences of the people who make up the public, as well as the intricacy
of the subject.
The viewpoint must be indicative of the entire group. As a result, public
opinion is the collection of beliefs voiced by a large number of people on a
topic of public concern. For a Public Relations professional, public opinion
is a powerful force to be reckoned with.
6.3.1 Forming an Opinion
The primary goal of Public Relations is to gauge, analyse, and influence
public opinion, which is formed by the attitudes of the people who make up
the public. As a result, it's critical to comprehend the significance of
attitudes, why people have the attitudes they do, and their function in the
formation of opinions.
Attitudes are a person's feelings or moods a bout someone, an organisation,
a topic, or an object. They show a person's proclivity to judge problematic
issues favourably or negatively. Simply put, an attitude is a style of thinking
about things. An opinion is an expressed attitude.
A shift in attitud e can occur under a variety of circumstances, such as when
our current attitude no longer fulfils us or when our desires rise. Changes in
attitude can be affected through communication by instilling new beliefs or
appealing to emotions to elicit favourable or unpleasant feelings. People's
physical, social, and economic demands are thought to be effective in
changing their attitudes, as seen by the widespread acceptance and response
to advertisements for life, property, and other insurance products.
6.3.2 Wh at Factors Influence Public Opinion?
Individuals' attitudes and their expression in the shape of opinions are
psychological phenomena. It is impossible for a group to create an opinion.
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59 Propaganda Public Opinio n and Publicity Individuals that make up a group form public opinion by expressing their
own viewpoint on a contentious issue. The interplay of the individual
opinions of the members of a group produces public opinion, which is a
composite opinion. A distinguishing feature of the public opinion process
is the transition of individual opinion into public opinion via collective
stimuli. The 'collective mind,' which is the sum of individual views in a
group, is frequently referred to as this metamorphosis. This is referred to as
public opinion.
The impact of group members on a person's opinion results in the
transformation of individual opinion into group opinion, which is known as
public opinion. Those in a group's opinions are impacted by what they hear
from opinion leaders, oth er members of the group, and people outside the
group; what they read in newspapers, magazines, and books; and what they
see in real life or on television about them. I
Individual opinions are influenced by their needs, emotions, experience,
heredity, cult ure, economic standing, and education, in addition to group
influences. Public opinion comes from the interaction of individual
attitudes, opinions, and group opinions.
6.3.3 Public Opinion, Propaganda, and Public Relations
You've just learned how public o pinion is generated and how Public
Relations activities can aid in the shaping of it. There is, however, another
side to propaganda -based public opinion manipulation. It is critical for
Public Relations students to understand the difference between Public
Relations and propaganda, as the two function at various levels and serve
different purposes. Public Relations isn't the same as propaganda. So, in
order to gain a better understanding of this art, let us take a quick look at it
Propaganda is defined as an expression of opinion by individuals and
groups that is intentionally aimed to influence the opinion or action of other
persons or groups in accordance with Public Relations concepts, with a
specific goal in mind. Although propaganda, in its broadest defi nition, aims
to advance a cause Advertising, Publicity, and e.g., a religious faith, and
thus can be regarded legitimate persuasion, it has developed a negative
reputation as a result of its use to incite hatred and terror during conflicts.
Facts are still suppressed using this method. As a result, propaganda has
earned a reputation for brainwashing and barbarism. It has one or more of
the following characteristics:
x use of words that have two meanings
x appeals to people's preconceptions and the arousal of unpleasant
emotions such as fear, hatred, and so on.
x truth obfuscation, fact suppression, and misrepresentation
x provocation, trivialization
x only one -sided a rguments are presented
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60 Public Relations are sometimes referred to as propaganda by critics,
implying that it also manipulates public opinion. Despite the fact that Public
Relations aim to influence public opinion, it is not the same as propag anda.
Public Relations are a sincere, straightforward, long -term attempt to project
a positive image based on facts and results. It has no malicious, short -term
self-interest in withholding facts in order to deceive others. It is based on
open two -way comm unication, unlike propaganda.
The common view of the people in a society is referred to as public opinion.
Individuals come to a common point of agreement while having differing
viewpoints on things and concerns that affect them or society. Through an
interchange of ideas, interactions, projections, and critique, they form a
shared perspective. This entire process culminates in public opinion.
The opinions held by the general public at a given period are referred to as
public opinion.
The mass thoughts and judgments that operate in a community make up
public opinion. They have a long shelf life and are well -formulated.
The term "public opinion" simply refers to the collective expression of
people's opinions on a certain topic. The opinions of people in a sma ll or
large community on a certain subject at a given period are referred to as
public opinion. It is not required for public opinion to reflect the views of
all members of society; rather, it should reflect the views of a majority of
the population. It is taken seriously by members of the organisation or
community. Public opinion is fluid and varies with the circumstances and
the passage of time.
6.4 PUBLIC OPINION C HARACTERISTICS
i) Instead of an individual's or group's interest, public opinion always
connec ts to a shared subject matter or societal issues.
ii) Public opinion is a widely held belief held by the majority of a
society's citizens.
iii) No single person has the ability to shape public opinion. It arises from
the collective opinion of a society's c itizens.
iv) Public opinion is the result of a social process that evolves through
people's interpersonal interactions in society.
v) Public opinion does not have to be logical. It could be both rational
and illogical.
vi) Because it is the opinion of the majority of people, public opinion has
an impact on even those members of society who do not agree with it.
vii) Public opinion is frequently used as a barometer of social culture.
Public opinion develops, extends, and is shaped by society's beliefs,
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61 Propaganda Public Opinio n and Publicity viii) Public opinion may be swayed by a prominent, honoured, wealthy,
and powerful member of society. A person with such a personality
has an impact on the society's goals, interests, and way of li fe.
ix) Public opinion frequently appears to be linked to a certain problem or
issue at a specific period.
x) Public opinion on any topic does not remain constant throughout time,
and as a result, it is not stable in nature. It shifts with the passage of
time and the circumstances. It evolves in response to societal
demands.
xi) After a thorough examination of the issue or situation, public opinion
frequently emerges.
xii) Public perceptions of community conventions, stereotypes, and
traditions tend to be m ore consistent. It is dynamic because of
propaganda, projection, and extension.
6.5 IMPACT AND RELEV ANCE
Since ancient times, public opinion has played a key role in society. It
occupies a significant position in contemporary society. In a broad society,
public opinion is considerably more significant and vital than in a small
group or community.
The current era is one of democracy, and public opinion plays a key role in
today's social order. In the absence of popular opinion, democracy cannot
function prop erly.
Only when the public opinion is acceptable is democracy meaningful. The
acceptance of popular opinion gives it strength and influence. Any law that
is to be enacted in society must have the people's consent in order to be
effective. Although public o pinion does not always aid the government or
the people, it does exert control over both. The power to sway public
opinion is inherent in its importance. Even powerful individuals' feelings,
emotions, and actions are influenced by public opinion.
Because the public is a vast live fact, public opinion is important to the
government. Ignorance of such a current reality could spell calamity. On
certain topics, a government should operate with the consent of its citizens.
It can be difficult for a government t o maintain a considerable number of
individuals uninterested with its actions. In any civilization, the type of
governance is determined by public opinion.
The importance of public opinion in evaluating and appraising the
government's performance cannot be overstated. Only the people, not the
government, can determine the faults of the rules and regulations enacted
by the government. In this regard, public opinion becomes extremely
important to society. Public opinion has a significant impact on society
because it determines how people and the government function and make
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62 Public opinion teaches both the people and the government, allowing them
to develop a shared understanding of how to solve societal problems.
Individuals' socialisation, thinking , and behaviour are influenced by public
opinion, which establishes commonly accepted behavioural norms.
Individuals and institutions can use public opinion to frame, develop, and
govern their behaviour in conformity with society. Any individual or
institu tion in society, whether religious, educational, social, cultural,
economic, or political, cannot function smoothly if public opinion is
ignored. Ignorance of public opinion may prevent them from attaining their
objectives, which could be disastrous in the worst -case scenario. Because
public opinion shapes the thinking and actions of individuals, groups, and
institutions, it is extremely important to society. In a monarchical or
dictatorial regime, public opinion is more significant.
People have ample freed om in a democracy, but they are obligated to accept
the dictates of rulers in a monarchy or dictatorship, with minimal
intervention in their functioning.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
What is opinion? Explain through various definitions and examples.
______________ ______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
____________________________________________________________
What is the impact and Relevance of Opinion?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
____________________________________________________________
6.6 PROPAGANDA: METH ODS AND IMPLICATIONS
Propaganda's role in the modern world is steadily growing. It has become a
part of our everyday lives. Propaganda is a weapon used by politicians,
businesses, governments, educators, spiritual leaders, social reformers, and
professionals of va rious professions to reach out to a vast number of people.
They acquire people's favour through propaganda. Propaganda is a tactic
and a process for persuading individuals and organisations to change their
minds, beliefs, and attitudes. Propaganda is, for the most part, pre -planned.
It employs symbols, primarily through suggestion and similar psychological
tactics, to influence and control people's beliefs and ideas, as well as to
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63 Propaganda Public Opinio n and Publicity It is a person's or a group's organised and systematic attempt to sway public
opinion and attitudes toward certain lifestyles. It manipulates a group's
mentality and, as a result, their actions through the use of suggestion. It
merely tries to sway people's attitudes and opinions, and thus their
behaviours, in a particular direction.
Facts and rationality are not used in propaganda.
i) Conversionary propaganda
ii) Consolidatory propaganda
iii) Divisionary propaganda
Conversionary propaganda aims to educate individuals and then influence
them to al ter their values, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviours. In the world
of advertising, this form of propaganda is frequently used. During times of
war, political groups or nations deploy divisionary propaganda based on the
'divide and rule' policy. Attempts a re undertaken in consolidatory
propaganda to provoke and cement popular views, values, and attitudes,
among other things. During a time of war, 11 is being used to bring peace
and harmony to humankind.
Propaganda is always driven by a goal, and that goal i s tied to the
individuals who are the target of the propaganda. A propagandist employs
a variety of symbols to achieve his or her goals. Symbolic words are used
by advertisers and traders to popularise their items. To attract voters,
political parties have their own insignia. In propaganda, direction is very
crucial. It has been noted that if propaganda is used often, it might lose its
effectiveness.
6.7 METHODS OF PROPA GANDA
Propaganda is used in a variety of ways. Through projection, demonstration,
oratio n, and storytelling, a propagandist can construct a persuasive
argument in his favour. These strategies and media are used to implement
these methods.
The following are some of the most prevalent techniques:
x Name -calling device,
x Testimony device,
x Glittering generality device,
x Card stacking device,
x Plain Folk device,
x Chamber of Horrors device,
x Transfer device, and
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64 Public Relations Theory and Practice
64 The propagandist utilises renowned names for his supporter s and followers
and notorious or non -famous names for his opponents in the name calling
device. The names of prominent great persons are associated with
propagandist content in the testimonial device. The propagandist employs
justice, unity, and friendline ss in a sparkling generic method to elicit a
favourable emotion in the masses. The truth is hidden in the card stacking
device truth, which propagates or presents incorrect facts to the public. This
device's most prevalent methods are evasion and deception . During
elections, political parties frequently employ this tactic. The propagandist
uses a simple folk trick to demonstrate that he, too, is a member of society.
He has a charismatic personality, and many regard him as a well -wisher.
The propagandist use s the chamber of horrors device to elicit dread and
ensure people's safety. In the transfer device, the propagandist associates his
propaganda material with supernatural force in order to elicit public support
for his programmes, but in the bandwagon devic e, the propagandist appeals
by emphasising that everyone is saying the same thing he is.
The following are some examples of popular media or technologies for
implementing these techniques:
i) Press and publications - This is a widely used propaganda medium .
The propagandist develops favourable attitudes for himself or his
views in the public by using printed materials such as newspapers,
magazines, pamphlets, bulletins, and brochures. People frequently
read a newspaper of their choice and form opinions base d on the
viewpoints expressed in that publication. People trust written
information more than spoken information. People's fears are eased
or removed by the print media.
ii) Meeting and speech – The propagandist conveys his thoughts to the
public in a meet ing. If the speaker's personality is beautiful and
impressive, this strategy will be more effective. The audience arrives
at the meeting with preconceived notions about the speaker. The art
and skill of presentation has an impact on the audience's psyche.
iii) Cultural programmes, drama, and theatre - People are swayed in
favour of specific items or viewpoints through cultural programmes,
drama, and theatre.
iv) Radio - In today's society, radio is a frequently used and strong means
of publicity. It dissemi nates information around the world in a matter
of seconds.
v) Television - Television is a modern audio -visual propaganda
medium. It is fairly expensive for individuals in developing countries,
and so does not cover the same range as the radio.
vi) Cinema is also an audio -visual public -relations medium. It is a cost -
effective and effective propaganda medium. It is primarily enjoyed by
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65 Propaganda Public Opinio n and Publicity vii) Loudspeaker - Loud speakers are used to broadcast information
directly to people who ar e at home, at work, or on the road. viii)
Demonstration and procession - Political parties frequently arrange
demonstrations and processions to publicise their positions; ix)
Rumor - People can be easily swayed by rumours for a brief period of
time. In a c ritical circumstance, it results in a shift in public opinion.
x) other forms of propaganda in society include dance and music groups,
concerts, puppet shows, wall writings, hoardings, posters, folklore,
slogans, magic shows, circuses, and so on.
Implicati ons
Propaganda is a strategy for persuading people to support a particular
political, social, religious, cultural, or economic institution, viewpoint, or
product. People may be made aware of a particular viewpoint of a person or
a product of a manufacturin g institution through propaganda. People are
sometimes influenced by propaganda to accept dangerous ideas. People's
brains are diverted from logical observation and decision -making by
powerful propaganda. People can fall prey to its allure and embrace
unfavourable viewpoints.
Publicity
Publicity, on the other hand, is a free write -up of an organization's product
or service, as well as a problem, in the news or editorial columns of a
newspaper or magazine, or during non -commercial time on television and
radio. It is information that is generated and disseminated by journalists
(media) on their own initiative or in response to a specific request from the
company/spokesperson. organization's Unlike advertising, public service
announcements are not paid for. It occurs as a result of substantial "news"
about the product or service, or an incident involving the product or
organisation.
In the reporter's or editor's opinion, it must be substantially fascinating,
novel, informative, and necessary for the readers or viewers of the media.
In an organization's communication aims and process, publicity is just as
important as advertising. It's a tactical instrument with an elevated level of
believability and the ability to be dramatized naturally. As a result, the
commun icator or organisation behind it makes use of it and takes full
advantage of it in order to achieve specified and timely communication
goals.
It is a useful technique in today's high -cost media environment, and it is
frequently employed by Public Relations professionals with positive results.
Because the media is regarded as a source of news, Public Relations is
regarded as more reliable than advertising. As a result, the message is more
acceptable.
Publicity management necessitates a unique set of talents. If used correctly,
it can provide enormous benefits, but if used incorrectly, it can cause more
harm than good. It must be true, and I must be truthful, in addition to just munotes.in

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66 Public Relations Theory and Practice
66 reading good. It should not be viewed as an 'advertisement,' but rather as a
natur al projection of the desired message and information for the target
audience.
Public Relations
Advertising, publicity, and other communication strategies that require
knowledge of psychology for effective persuasion are all included in the
field of Public Relations.
"The planned effort to establish and improve the degree of mutual
understanding between an organisation, or individual, and any group of
persons or organisations, with the primary object of assisting that
organisation or individual to deserve, a cquire, and maintain a good
reputation,"
According to the British Institute of Public Relations (IPR). Typically, the
advertisement, or PR man, seeks to reach out to and persuade the biggest
number of possible customers. He accomplishes this by "sending
communications," which he does in a one -way fashion (in the form of
newspaper ads, television commercials, etc.).
Public Relations, on the other hand, takes a far more selective strategy,
relying on information moving to and from the public in both directio ns,
i.e., conveying messages and receiving comments. The importance of
feedback in Public Relations is critical to its success.
The Indian public has grown into a formidable power. Even in a country
where the majority of the population has yet to learn the basics of literacy,
citizens, customers, shareholders, and workers are aware of their rights as
citizens, consumers, shareholders, and employees. Furthermore, they are no
longer like dumb driven cattle, but have the ability to speak up. The average
person can make his presence felt through mass media institutions.
He can submit a letter to the editor of a widely circulated daily or weekly
newspaper if he has a complaint. No organisation can dare to ignore this
warning since he can go up to his MLA or MP o r local Councillor and air
his problems through him in a State Legislature, Parliament, or Municipal
Corporation. The government will take notice if the name of the group is
frequently mentioned in the Parliament or State Legislature and may even
take acti on against it.
The "consumers concerns" column of most of our major newspapers, such
as Hindustan Times, Indian Express, Hindu, and The Deccan Chronicle,
contains good examples of feedback.
Even a negative editorial statement in a newspaper will almost ce rtainly
prompt the government to seek an explanation from the offending
department or to take action.
Customers, distributors, and retailers are just a few of the target groups for
advertising and publicity. They are largely in the business of selling. The y
are a component of the marketing mix. However, because a corporation isn't munotes.in

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67 Propaganda Public Opinio n and Publicity only about selling, the goals of Public Relations are far broader. This is
where things start to get a little confusing.
Obviously, a company's principal goal is to sell its good s and services and
generate a profit. But none of this can happen in a cost -effective and
efficient manner unless every other aspect of the organisation contributes.
The weakest link in a chain determines its overall strength. Every link in the
chain can b e strengthened through Public Relations.
LET’S SUM IT UP Communication is a multi -dimensional or multi -faceted
discipline. Propaganda is defined as an expression of opinion by individuals
and groups that is intentionally aimed to influence the opinion or action of
other persons or groups in accordance with Public Relations concepts, with
a specific goal in mind. All expressions of a belief held in common by
members of a group of people on a problematic issue or general topics are
referred to as public opin ion. Individual opinions are influenced by their
needs, emotions, experience, heredity, culture, economic standing, and
education, in addition to group influences. Public opinion comes from the
interaction of individual attitudes, opinions, and group opini ons. The
current era is one of democracy, and public opinion plays a key role in
today's social order. In the absence of popular opinion, democracy cannot
function properly. Publicity, on the other hand, is a free write -up of an
organization's product or s ervice, as well as a problem, in the news or
editorial columns of a newspaper or magazine, or during non -commercial
time on television and radio. Advertising, publicity, and other
communication strategies that require knowledge of psychology for
effective persuasion are all included in the field of Public Relations.
ACTIVITY
1. Discuss ‘Public Opinion – impact and relevance in society. ’
2. Explain the forming of an Opinion.
3. State the factors which influence Public Opinion.
4. What is Propaganda? Discus s its methods and implications.
5. Write short notes on:
(i) Public Relations (ii) Publicity
REFERENCES
Grizzell, Kyle. “Public Relations vs. Propaganda, Marketing, and
Publicity.” BlueSky PR , https://www.bluesky -pr.com/blog/business -
education/public -relations -vs.-propaganda -marketing -and-publicity.
Accessed 22 September 2022.
Samuel, Chris, et al. “Chapter 3 – Public Relations Basics – The Evolving
World of Public Relations: Beyond the Press Release.” The Pennsylvania
State University , https://psu.pb.un izin.org/comm370/chapter/chapter -3-the-
world -of-public -relations/. Accessed 22 September 2022.
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68 7
PUBLIC RELATIONS: CATALYST,
PERSUASION, AND MOTIVATION
Unit Structure
7.0 Objective of the study
7.1 Public Relations as a catalyst for change
7.2 Assessment of the Environ ment
7.3 Public Relations in planning and development
7.4 Planning for the future
7.5 Plans for the next five years
7.6 Participation of the Public
7.7 Plan publicity
7.8 Publicity for the Integrated Plan
7.9 Emergence of development Public Relations
7.10 Public Relations in persuasion
7.11 Public Relations and motivation
7.12 Motivation in a group
7.12.1 How Can You Boost Your Motivation?
7.0 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
x explain the role of PR as a catalyst for change;
x describe the significance of environm ent assessment in PR;
x describe the concept of development planning;
x state the importance of people's participation in development
programmes and how it can be brought about;
x list the channels that may be used for disseminating publicity for
develo pment plans;
x explain the role of PR in development context; understand the
interplay of numerous factors involved in effective persuasion;
x and describe the concept of motivation and how PR can help to
motivate individuals and groups for achieving dev elopmental goals. munotes.in

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69 Public Relations: Catalyst, Persuasion, and Motivation 7.1 PUBLIC RELATIONS AS A CATALYST FOR
CHANGE
It is recommended that you have a thorough understanding of the notion of
Public Relations in order to grasp the role of Public Relations as a catalyst
for change. In the previous units, you s tudied several definitions of Public
Relations. However, you should look into several definitions that define the
role of Public Relations as a change catalyst.
Edward L. Bernyas, a doyen of American Public Relations, describes it as
"the - endeavour to en gineer public support for an action, cause, movement,
or institution by information, persuasion, and modification." "Management
of relations and understanding between an organisation and internal and
external publics to promote company goals, ideas, activi ties, services, or
goods," we'd like to say.
x Public Relations are a broad phrase that refers to a variety of
organisations' communication needs. It comes in a variety of flavours,
including:
x Public Relations assist an organisation and its constituents in adapting
to one another.
x Public Relation s are an organization's attempt to gain client
cooperation.
x Public Relations assist organisations in interacting and
communicating with their target audiences.
x Public Relations assist organisations in anticipating indicators of
change and implementing constructive remedial actions.
x Public Relations analyse the public's reaction and keeps organisations
up to date with feedback and information.
According to these definitions, Public Relations is a two -way link between
an organisation and the public, ser ving not only to inform the public about
the organization's policies and programmes, but also to keep the
organisation informed about the public's pulse. This, without a doubt,
produces the ideal environment and amicable relationships between the
organisat ions and their various audiences. Because no institution can grow
and survive in a hostile environment, this is necessary for an organisation
to develop and thrive in society.
As a result, we would be justified in claiming that Public Relations plays a
critical part in development by fostering the appropriate atmosphere.
Even in the context of national development, Public Relations plays a key
role in bridging the gap between the development machinery and the people
who benefit from the schemes.
Its role is to not only raise awareness about development programmes, but
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70 Public Relations Theory and Practice
70 Let us now look at how Public Relations can act as a change catalyst. Before
you can reorient someone toward a desired aim or target, you must provide
them with complete facts and a clear understanding of the problem. Public
Relations play this role in a variety of ways. The chain is made up of five
steps:
1) Knowledge
2) Education
3) Motivation
4) Involvement
5) Change
All of these functions are fulfilled by Public Relations in influencing
Catalyst, Persuasion, and people's attitudes toward growth. In India, the
concept of Public Relations as a catalyst for change in the motivational
development environment has gone throu gh many stages such as Five -Year
Plan Publicity, Integrated Plan Publicity, Development Communication,
Development Broadcasting, Development Journalism, and so on. The
concept of development Public Relations has now evolved as a driver for
socioeconomic de velopment in Third World countries.
7.2 ASSESSMENT OF TH E ENVIRONMENT
Any organisation, whether government, public sector, or private sector,
must operate in accordance with the country's socioeconomic context.
Environmental assessment, a Public Relations procedure, is used to keep
track of shifting trends. This comprises two primary components: (a)
environmental scanning and (b) monitoring. Scanning entails assessing the
social, economic, and political conditions of the society in which the
organisation op erates. This is done to detect occurrences that could indicate
the start of significant trends that could have an impact on the organisation.
Monitoring entails communicating the deterioration of such patterns that are
important for strategic planning.
According to the author of Public Relations: Programming and Production,
E.W. Brody "Environmental evaluation serves a variety of purposes in
Public Relations. It provides practitioners with ongoing insights into
individuals, organisations, and the environmen ts in which they operate as a
continuous process. Such data is crucial to the strategic planning process
that underpins the Public Relations campaign."
The purpose of the environmental assessment process is to identify and
track emerging issues or trends that may result in problems or opportunities
for the company. Scanning is used to identify these problems, and
monitoring is used to keep track of them. In Public Relations practise,
environmental assessment techniques include:
a) interaction with the pub lic and opinion leaders,
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71 Public Relations: Catalyst, Persuasion, and Motivation c) organisational monitoring, and
d) continuing education.
As a result, Public Relations as an art of dealing with the public must be
environmentally conscious. This is especially important in the
developmen tal context because our planning method is largely based on
top-down communication. Instead, one should concentrate on factors that
can make development programmes more relevant to the interests of those
who will benefit from them. In other words, it shoul d be a bottom -up, two -
way communication method, with environmental assessments providing a
clear image of the grassroots condition, which would aid in the development
of appropriate plans that meet the demands of the public.
Bringing the Public Together fo r Mutual Interaction is a project that aims
to bring the public together for mutual interaction.
Public Relations are primarily responsible for bringing people together for
mutual gain and engagement. Any organization's success is largely
determined by the interests of the top four sorts of public: senior
management, employees, customers, and the general public, including
opinion leaders.
In fact, these four groups make up the four strong pillars that support an
organisation. A successful organisation is on e that provides a venue for
these publics to engage and profit from each other on a regular basis. Such
a forum will allow diverse groups of people to understand each other's
problems, which will aid the organization's smooth operation. Management,
on the other hand, tends to implement communication programmes for each
group.
f these publics independently through internal customer communication In
India, an integrated approach to bringing all four groups together on a single
forum for mutual exchange of vie ws is rare. This has significant benefits
since it helps to lessen or eliminate hostility and suspicion between diverse
groups as a result of their competing interests. Mutual understanding is
facilitated through a common venue and open communication. Simi larly,
bringing together beneficiaries, policymakers, planners, administrative
machinery, and communicators in development activities aids in the
effective conception and smooth implementation of the programme.
7.3 PUBLIC RELATIONS IN PLANNING AND
DEVELOPM ENT
Drawing up an action plan to complete a task is referred to as planning. Any
undertaking involving development must begin with planning. Planning is
a continual process of forming, reformulating, and implementing a set of
connected goals, plans, progra mmes, activities, and tasks in order to achieve
the desired outcomes within a specified time frame. Planning is at the heart
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72 7.4 PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE
Although the core of these d efinitions are the same, different authors have
defined "growth" in diverse ways. Let's start with a definition of
"development."
It is now widely accepted that development is a multi -dimensional process
with non -economic as well as economic components. As a result, achieving
a variety of goals at the same time, such as growth and equity, is referred to
as "development."
Previously passive social groupings increasingly demand active
engagement in the development process and equitable distribution of the
benefits of productivity. Privileged groups, on the other hand, are wary of
sharing authority with their fellow citizens.
As a result, development is a process aimed at realising human potential in
its entirety. The achievement of these objectives will determ ine its success.
'A widely participative process of purposeful social change in a society,
aiming to bring about both social and material improvement for the majority
of people by giving them more control over their surroundings,' Rogers
defines it.
Develo pment is a systematic, integrated process that was initially
implemented in the Soviet Union in the 1920s. For large corporations in the
United States, planning has become commonplace. However, it chooses to
use the term policy to describe what is essentia lly the same as Public
Relations in the context of planning.
'Development Planning' is a scientific discipline that studies the
mechanisms of resource mobilisation and re -allocation in developing
countries with the goal of achieving optimal results and par ticipating in a
global change process that leads to self -reliant, self -centred, and long -term
development.
As it stands, the majority of developing countries have set up planning
machinery and devised economic development plans. In terms of character
and q uality, the proposals could be quite different. Some are based on facts,
while others are made up of random numbers. Some plans set modest goals;
others set aggressive but achievable goals; and still others set goals that are
just out of reach.
Some plann ers have embraced efficiency criteria to regulate the allocation
of development resources, and have used them to evolve project
applications and determine priorities. Others haven't established any
guiding principles, while yet others haven't undertaken mu ch project
evaluation.
Development plan provisions have been methodically included in
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73 Public Relations: Catalyst, Persuasion, and Motivation budgeting authorities in others. Some proposals have been implemented in
some form or another, wit h varying degrees of success.
Development plans are often created over three different time periods.
A long -term strategy has been devised. spanning two decades or more This
document discusses the strategy for achieving the desired direction, pattern,
and rate of development.
The medium -term plan, which our policymakers adopted, covers around
five years. It describes the development effort in a way that follows the
long-term plan's concept.
Finally, there are short -term annual plans, which detail the work t o be done
each fiscal year.
7.5 PLANS FOR THE NE XT FIVE YEARS
Some aspects of the Indian Five -Year Plans may be unfamiliar to you. The
current Eight Five Year Plan was launched with the goal of "consolidating
past achievements, addressing traditional conce rns with renewed vigour,
propelling the country to new heights of economic achievement, and
bringing the benefits of development to all people, particularly the poor."
the weak and the disadvantaged the plan calls for a total investment of Rs.
3.98,000 cro res, with the government contributing Rs. 4,38,100 crores.
The public sector's investment accounts for about 45 percent of the entire
plan budget. The plan has an interesting feature in that for the first time in
India's planning history, the private secto r has been given a large part of
Rs.450.000 crores more than the public sector outlay. The Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) is expected to expand at a rate of 5 -6 percent every year.
7.6 PARTICIPATION OF THE PUBLIC
In developing countries, newer approaches to development are
progressively straying from traditional top -down communication tactics.
People are now being encouraged to participate in the development process.
This is accomplished through the use of interpersonal and group
communication in the mass med ia, as well as the use of folk indigenous
media.
Only when the beneficiaries are aware of such schemes and use them for
their economic benefit will the Five -Year Plans and development initiatives,
which are aimed at the total development of the people, be successful. As a
result, people's cooperation and participation are critical at both the
formulation and execution stages of planned development programmes.
Every Five -Year Plan has underlined the importance of people participating
as partners in the devel opment process. Only when people are involved in
the process can such participation be guaranteed.
Farmers should be made participants in agricultural development so that
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74 Public Relations Theory and Practice
74 subject. He re's where information comes in. The required knowledge about
such schemes cannot be established unless information about the planned
scheme is extensively distributed. In the developmental process, the amount
of information made available and how widely i t is distributed are critical
aspects.
It has been suggested that ending "information poverty" is a precondition
for ending "economic poverty." This suggests that eradicating information
poverty is essential for economic development. Information and progre ss
should, in reality, go hand in hand. Naturally, the question arises: who will
do it? There should be an organisation to handle and disseminate
information, just as there is for economic development.
The Information and Public Relations Agency is in cha rge of this task.
Information and Public Relations agencies are primarily concerned with
alleviating information poverty through various forms of communication.
As a result, the role of information and Public Relations organisations in
delivering feedback from the ground up to planners for successful decision
making emerges.
Each Five -Year Plan clearly underlines two crucial components in its
objectives, namely, delivering plan information and requesting people's
cooperation. "A widespread knowledge of the plan is a key stage in its
fulfilment," the First Five Year Plan document stated. The strategy
document indicated that people's engagement was important. "The plan
must be taken into every home in the people's own language and symbols
and explained in term s of their shared needs and difficulties." "Sincere
efforts should be made to incorporate people in the process of
development," the Third Five -Year Plan stated. It's also worth mentioning
the Seventh Five -Year Plan, which emphasised the importance of
information services. "The plan's main thrust in terms of mass media will
be to improve people's awareness and enrich their cultural and social lives
in order to make them better informed citizens.” Accelerating development
programmes and raising public awaren ess of important national and
international events the media will serve as a tool for education and
extension, bridging information gaps that people from all walks of life
encounter."
One of the objectives of the Eighth Five -Year Plan is to "make people's
participation in the formulation and implementation of plans, through
Panchayats in rural areas and popularly elected municipal bodies in urban
areas," which is stated as follows: "To make people's participation in the
formulation and implementation of pla ns, through Panchayats in rural areas
and popularly elected municipal bodies in urban areas."
The goal is to involve people and democratic bodies from the ground up in
the development and execution of plan plans." True participation should
promote conscie ntiousness, which is only achievable in receiver -centred
communication education. The disadvantaged can use the information
above to understand their requirements, set priorities, discover limiting
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75 Public Relations: Catalyst, Persuasion, and Motivation 7.7 PLAN PUBLICITY
During the First Five Year Plan, the concept of "Plan Publicity" was
developed as a means of not only disseminating plan information but also
generating people's cooperation and participation. The phrase 'Plan
Publicity' refers to a lot more than just publicisin g development initiatives
and Five -Year Plans.
It has to appeal to people's emotions. Because the plan encompasses the
entire community's life through its proper implementation, it necessitates a
unified national viewpoint, which necessitates a great deal of discipline and
sacrifice on the part of the people. Plan publicity's goal is to create an
emotional desire for progress in the minds of the people, as well as mass
enlightenment.
It should instill a comprehensive concept of good citizenship and increa se
people's desire for a sense of self -help. The mood should be upbeat and
receptive so that public cooperation becomes a self -sustaining force that
propels national constructive action forward.
7.8 PUBLICITY FOR TH E INTEGRATED PLAN
An integrated plan publ icity program was included in the Five -Year Plans,
incorporating the publicity schemes of the Five -Year Plans for various
media units of the Government of India, and it was implemented.
The All -India Radio, Directorate of Advertising and Publicity, Public ations
Division, Press Information Bureau, Photo Division, Song and Drama
Division, and Films Division have all designed special plan publicity
schemes to raise public awareness about the Five -Year Plans since the
scheme began in 1953.
Similarly, the stat e Information and Public Relations Department has
established plan publicity units within their various departments to promote
plan schemes. Yojana, the Publication Division's fortnightly publication in
English, Hindi, and other regional languages, is dedi cated to planning and
development. Kurukshetra is a comparable monthly magazine that is
published in both English and Hindi. In addition, the Ministry of
Information and Broadcasting's Directorate of Field Publicity brings the
message of planning to the do orsteps of people in rural India.
The Song and Drama Division has done a fantastic job of raising awareness
among rural people with vital information such as how to secure a bank
loan, how to use contraceptives, and so on, using traditional folk media.
As a result, all of these coordinated efforts by various media units and state
governments strive to raise plan knowledge and turn people into "partners
in progress." That is the primary goal of the multi -media Integrated Plan for
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76 Public Relations Theory and Practice
76 7.9 EMERGENCE OF DEVELOPMENT PUBLIC
RELATIONS
As it became clear that one -way communication and transmission of
information alone could not bring about progress, the term "publicity" was
modified to "Public Relations." The plan PR schemes were included into
the media unit s' and the State Information and Public Relations
Departments' usual operations. The information and public aspects of
planning and development schemes are now handled by the following
entities: respective media units in the Central Government, the State
Information and Public Relations Department in the State Government, and
the Public Relations Cells of the respective public sector enterprises.
You must be familiar with the term "development communication," which
refers to the use of communication to aid development, either in a broad
fashion through workers or using the media for better exposure of
development projects like population control. 'Development Support
Communication' is another name for this.
Whether it is referred to as plan publicity or deve lopment communication,
it is simply a Public Relations support for development programmes
handled by information workers and Public Relations organisations in India
with the goal of raising public knowledge about planning and development
programmes. As a t wo-way communication process, Public Relations plays
an important part in the planning and growth of our country.
The task, however, does not end with informing. The most essential
problem that these organisations must address is changing people's attitud es
through raising awareness about the prospect of a higher quality of life. It
is the complete transition of conventional civilization into a fully developed,
sophisticated society with high living standards for all people and a life
devoid of poverty, un employment, and ignorance. Public Relations must
take on the monumental duty of disseminating necessary information
throughout society. In this case, Public Relations serve as a catalyst for
change.
The process of socioeconomic growth is aided by Public Re lations. It
encompasses a variety of functions in developing countries as they progress
toward modernization and industrialization. In truth, development Public
Relations is the comfort of information and Public Relations agency to raise
public knowledge a bout planning and development schemes through a two -
way communication process to encourage people to participate in the
economic development process.
7.10 PUBLIC RELATION S IN PERSUASION
Persuasion is defined by Winston Brembeck and William Howell, two
comm unication professionals, as "communication to influence choices." munotes.in

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77 Public Relations: Catalyst, Persuasion, and Motivation "Any message intended or not, that creates a change in a receiver's attitude,
belief, or conduct," according to another definition.
It is defined as "a process that alters people's attitud es, beliefs, opinions, or
behaviours."
Persuasion as a PR tool is typically defined as a communicative process
with the goal of "influencing." A persuasive message promotes a point of
view or a desired behaviour that the recipient can choose to adopt. Vict oria
O' Nuing is a character in the novel Victoria O' Nuing by Victoria the
interactive process involves a sender and a receiver who are linked by
symbols, both verbal and nonverbal, in which the persuader tries to persuade
the persuadee to modify a specif ic attitude or behaviour because the
persuadee's views have been enlarged or changed.
Effective persuasion requires transactional communication. This is a two -
way persuasion method in which the target group and the development
worker communicate to resolve disagreements and reach an agreement.
Persuasion that promises to help them in some way by meeting a want or
need is more effective. As a result, the persuader must consider the needs
of the persuadee. Persuasion is a two -way street in which both parties are
reliant on each other.
The following is how renowned British author Frank Jefkins discusses the
job of Public Relations through an information transfer process mode:
HOSPITALITY SYMPATHY
PREJUDICE ACCEPTANCE
APATHY INTEREST
IGNORANCE KNOWLEDGE
As a result, Public Relations aims to improve people's attitudes by gaining
a better grasp of the current human climate and fostering mutual
understanding between an organisation and its constituents. Negative
thoughts and criticism of the organisation are transformed into positive
feelings during this process. This for m of Public Relations strategy can also
be used to change people's views toward progress during the development
process.
As a result, Public Relations uses the persuasive approach in both internal
and external communications because their goals are to info rm, educate,
motivate, and influence people's opinions. Persuasion is used to change or
neutralise antagonistic attitudes, solidify latent beliefs and good attitudes,
and foster favourable public perceptions.
Turning antagonistic ideas into sympathetic one s is the most difficult
persuasion effort. People in India are tradition -bound and conservative
when it comes to development. It is tough for a PR professional working on
development projects to change folks who are firmly anchored in traditional
thinking. As a result, development messages should be created in a way that munotes.in

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78 Public Relations Theory and Practice
78 is compatible with people's overall attitudes toward a topic.
Communication, which is reinforced through services and acts, is the
simplest type of persuasion.
The source loses credibility if promised action is not taken, for example, a
movement to encourage female education should be coordinated with the
establishment of a school educational facility. Otherwise, it is a waste of
time. Persuasive communication involves a lot of aspects, all of which the
PR practitioner should be aware of. Audience analysis is one of them.
x Credibility of the source.
x Make a self -interested argument.
x The message's clarity.
x Context and timing.
x Participation of the audience is encouraged.
x Message content and structure.
x Speaking in a persuasive manner.
Audience Analysis : Any develop ment message is aimed at people, and it
should be tailored to their needs. The audience's profile will be examined,
taking into account their age, education, socioeconomic status, and other
factors.
Source Credibility : In the viewpoint of the receiver, the source should be
trustworthy or an expert. If the source is regarded as reputable by the
intended audience, the message will be more credible.
This explains why any extended source, particularly for the dissemination
of innovation, seeks the help and part icipation of local opinion leaders. The
success of a reputable source is explained by the involvement of village dais
for family, welfare programmes, or progressive farmers for adoption of
modern farming practises.
When it comes to the development phase, the messages should be
accompanied with actions or the scheme's implementation. The mere
announcement of a development strategy by a source does not establish trust
unless it is implemented, and people benefit.
Appeal to Self -Interest: When we appeal to pe ople's economic demands,
they become more invested in issues and pay attention to communications.
When creating an angle for a message, the Public Relations professional
must consider the audience's nature and what it wants to know first. The
programme can not be successful if policymakers do not grasp the priorities
and environment of the beneficiaries.
Clarity of Message : Many messages fail because the audience finds the
substance or words to be unnecessarily difficult. The most persuasive
messages are sho rt and to -the-point, with only one main point. Always ask
two questions when working in Public Relations. What do I want the
audience to take away from this message? Will the message be understood munotes.in

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79 Public Relations: Catalyst, Persuasion, and Motivation by the audience? The user -ability receivers to comprehend d evelopment
messages is required for proper decision -making on the receiver's part. To
increase message fidelity among the intended beneficiaries, more attention
to message production is required.
Timing and Context: When external variables assist a message , it becomes
more convincing. A message on the introduction of high -yielding paddy
varieties should be delivered and timed to coincide with the agricultural
season and farmers' requirements. Priorities should be evaluated in context.
In a neighbourhood whe re people's bellies are empty and famine is
pervasive, a literacy campaign cannot hope to succeed.
Audience Involvement and Participation: Audience involvement and
participation can help people alter their minds or reaffirm their convictions.
Instead, trea ting beneficiaries as passive users, the modern strategy is to
mobilise, organise, and train them to collaborate successfully with experts
and authorities so that knowledge is shared rather than passed down one -
way. In the end, it is important to notice th at the audience is engaged in
socioeconomic programmes.
Communication Content and Structure : A variety of strategies can be
used to make a message more purposeful. Expert communicators employ a
variety of strategies, including
(1) drama
(2) data
(3) exa mples
(4) testimonials
(5) media endorsement
(6) emotional appeals
A well -balanced mix of necessary parts that are appropriate for the
communication channel, a logical order in the presentation of argument
targets, as well as skill, expertise, and expe rience, all contribute to the
creation of effective messages.
Persuasive Speaking: Persuasive speeches provide a thorough knowledge
of the problem for all parties involved. Reasoning and empathy should be
used when speaking. Instead of top -down flow and hi ghly prescriptive
education, communication experts today advocate for interactive
communication that emphasises knowledge sharing between equals.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain the role of PR as a catalyst for change
_____________________________________ _______________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
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80 2. Briefly explain: Public Relations in planning and development
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________ ________________________
____________________________________________________________
7.11 PUBLIC RELATION S AND MOTIVATION
If one of the goals of Public Relations is to build friendly relationships
between an organisation and its constituents, motivation is a critical factor
in influencing the attitudes of either individual or institutional constituents.
There is a motivation be hind every individual's action. As a result,
motivation is crucial in the field of Public Relations. The theory of
motivation is centred on the words "want," "wish," or "want," and how
humans act to achieve certain goals in order to fulfil their needs or d esires.
The 'drive' that causes people to react or act in a certain way is called
motivation. The primary goal of a Public Relations professional is to ensure
that a message is received, understood, and acted upon. This can be stated
to be the primary mot ivation for communicating a message, whether it is
about progress or not. The message must have the appropriate 'drive' or
appeal. The recipient of such a message will respond based on the aspect
that motivates them, which will usually be in the context of the
communication and the sender's best experience. A lot is also dependent on
the source's reliability.
If a goodwill relationship has been developed between the organization and
the general public, the motive of the receiver, which influences the reacti on,
will be different than if no such relationship has been established. Why do
people react to the same stimulus in several ways, whether it's pressure or
persuasion? What drives a farmer to experiment with novel ways of
cultivation rather than the old; a n illiterate rural girl to enroll in a literacy
class; an urban lady to get a cancer check -up; or an employee to enhance
job output? The source of motivation, which stems from an individual's
underlying social and cultural values, must be considered by the PR
practitioner.
Dr. Abraham Maslow developed a notion known as Maslow's Hierarchy of
Needs after conducting extensive research on motivation. According to him,
the source of these demands is more powerful than the others and must be
met first. As a resul t, in order to motivate someone, they must be assisted in
moving up the Hierarchy of Needs.
These degrees of need, however, overlap, and greater needs emerge before
lower wants are fully met. It is thought that in order to motivate a person, it
is importa nt to look at variables that will excite him (incentives) and factors
that would prevent action (inhibitors) (disincentives).
According to research, non -financial incentives, such as status, recognition,
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81 Public Relations: Catalyst, Persuasion, and Motivation important as monetary rewards. That can be powerful motivators that
management considers when dealing with issues such as absenteeism,
declining productivity, and so on. Employee motivation can be secured in a
variety of ways, including sha ring productivity gains, sharing information,
establishing a sense of belonging, and assisting employees with personal
issues.
In the context of development, the information worker or change agent
working to promote innovation adoption must examine options that will
encourage beneficiaries to change their minds. This necessitates extensive
investigation into the backgrounds of the beneficiaries in order to assess
their needs.
7.12 MOTIVATION IN A GROUP
The group's opinion regarding any policy, programme, or product is
mirrored not by each individual member, but by the group leaders, who have
strong personalities and are generally persuasive. Reference groups and
organisational membership are two significant characteristics that influence
human behaviour.
As a result, communicators must consider the groups to which people
belong. People behave differently when they are part of a group.
Sociologists claim that extremely productive work groups with high
performance goals can be formed. While group cohesiveness leads to the
group operating as a unit, the group's leader can focus the group's energies
on the organization's goals. Motivating individuals, even raising a task force
of volunteers for growth activities, necessitates exceptional abilities.
Individual mot ivation is sunk, and collective motivation is produced by
excellent oratory and effective persuasion by group leaders. Public
Relations try to use both individual and collective motivation concepts to
influence public perceptions of an organization's corpo rate aims.
Enlightened management encourages teamwork and makes an effort to
foster a positive organisational climate by avoiding inter -departmental
conflicts.
For a Public Relations professional, understanding group dynamics is
crucial. In terms of devel opment, India's best example is the Kheda Project,
which was decentralised and participatory and attempted to promote rural
development and social transformation after doing extensive audience
research to determine their requirements. Because the entire gr oup was
highly motivated, audience participation at all levels in programme
production dealing with issues like as alcoholism, exploitation,
cooperatives, and so on was crucial to the campaign's success.
7.12.1 How Can You Boost Your Motivation?
Public Rel ations practitioners may face animosity, prejudice, apathy, and
ignorance of the public during the motivation process, all of which impair
mutual understanding. Here are some suggestions to help you improve your
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82 Public Relations Theory and Practice
82 x Before sending out PR messages, it is a clever idea to look into the
recipient's educational and social background.
x This will allow you to create an inspiring environment for them.
x Empathize with them and make them feel valuable. Pay close
attention to them and encourage them to participate.
x Use language, words, and phrases that are understandable to the
general population.
x Avoid concealment at all costs. Have two -way communication that is
open and honest.
x Form groups and foster a sense of belon ging.
If you are aware that there's animosity, prejudice, or a negative motivation
in the public's thinking. Try to build your communications in such a way
that they have the fewest chances of being disrupted by these conditions.
Set an example with your own behaviour.
Avoid creating a credibility chasm. Promises must be kept with swift action
and performance.
Make an effort to get feedback from your audience to see if the messaging
had the desired effect.
If Public Relations use the motivational strategie s listed above, it will surely
help to develop a corporate personality and a positive image for a firm while
also promoting corporate relations. For development communication, the
same rules apply.
All individuals and organisations use the phrase "Public R elations" to
describe how they build and maintain harmonious relationships with their
respective publics in order to promote ideas, services, or products. While
acting as a catalyst, Public Relations use persuasion and incentive strategies
to influence pub lic opinion and guide it toward mutual understanding.
Individuals' behaviour, attitudes, and perceptions of an organization's
services or aims are influenced in its favour as a result of this process.
The analysis of the environment in which an organisatio n operates is a
crucial phase in the Public Relations process. This type of study also
identifies current trends and signals that are critical to the institutions'
success. Public Relations uses an environment assessment method to keep
track of the current condition and evolving socioeconomic trends.
According to E.W. Brody, the knowledge collected from environmental
analysis "is fundamental to the strategic planning process of Public
Relations." The environment is assessed by gathering feedback from the
media, opinion leaders, and other members of the public.
As a catalyst, Public Relations is responsible for bringing the publics of an
organisation together for mutual engagement and proper understanding so
that they can grasp each other's difficulties. Top -down, one -way
communication is deemed less desirable and successful than an integrated
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83 Public Relations: Catalyst, Persuasion, and Motivation In the context of development, Public Relations take on a higher
significance in order to communicate the message of planning and
development to the general public. Public Relations professionals spread
information via various forms of mass media or through extension workers.
Only until people are aware of the Five -Year Plans and the different
programmes proposed under the massive Eigh t Five Year Plan can they be
successful.
As a two -way communication process, Public Relations aims to eliminate
information poverty as a precondition for eradicating economic poverty.
'Development Public Relations' refers to the endeavour of the country's
information and Public Relations agencies to raise public knowledge of
planning and development plans in order to elicit public participation.
Public Relations for development aid the socioeconomic development
process. In reality, if total development is t o be realised, development
administration and information administration should work hand in hand.
Individual and group motivation is critical for PR in the development
setting. This necessitates extensive research on the beneficiaries'
backgrounds in orde r to identify their requirements, priorities, and so on.
The development messages should include the appropriate appeals, a well -
structured design, be delivered on time, and be understandable to the user
receiver. Only then can persuasive messages be accep ted as effective in
achieving the necessary change and development goals.
Let’s Sum It Up/Key Points
Everybody and every organisation use the term "Public Relations" to build
and maintain friendly ties with their respective publics while pushing ideas,
services, or products. PR acts as a catalyst, using persuasion and inspiration
to shape public opinion and direct it toward promoting intercultural
understanding. This process leads to changes in people's behaviour,
attitudes, and perceptions of the services or goals of organisations.
PR is crucial for growth in the context of motivating individuals and groups.
In-depth background research is needed in order to ascertain the needs,
priorities, etc. of the recipients. The development messages should be sent
at the right moments, with the right appeals, in a clear layout, and in a
language the user receiver can comprehend. Persuasive communications
will only be effective in bringing about the required change and achieving
the development goals at that point.
Since Public Relations is a two -way communication process, it tries to solve
information poverty as a crucial step in alleviating economic poverty.
Public Relations efforts by the nation's information and Public Relations
departments to raise public knowled ge of planning and development
activities in an effort to spur public participation are referred to as
development Public Relations. Public Relations for development are a tool
for socioeconomic development. In reality, cooperation between
information admi nistration and development administration is required for
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84 As a catalyst, Public Relations' main function is to connect an organization's
publics for correct knowledge and communication so they may understand
one ano ther's issues. Top -down, one -way communication is regarded as
being less preferable and efficient than an integrated strategy with two -way
communication. In order to educate the public about planning and
development, Public Relations is more crucial in the development
environment. PR professionals disseminate information via a variety of
media outlets or extension personnel. Only if the public is aware of and
actively engages in the programmes will the Five -Year Plans and the other
initiatives envisioned un der the expansive Eight Five Year Plan be
effective.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Discuss Emergence of development Public Relations
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________ _________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Discuss Public Relations in persuasion
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________ _________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Explain in detail Publ ic Relations and motivation
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________ _________________
____________________________________________________________
References:
Harindranath, Ramaswamy (2009). Audience -Citizens: The Media, Public
Knowledge, and Interpretive Practice. New Delhi. Sage Publications.
Banaji, Shakuntala (2011). South Asian Media Cultures: Audiences,
Representations, Contexts. New Delhi; Anthem Press.
Mytton, Graham et a1 (2016). Media Audience Research: A Guide for
Professionals. New Delhi; SAGE Publications.
Nightingale, Virginia (2011a. The Handbook of Media Audiences. New
Jersey; John Wiley & Sons.
Ruddock, Andy (2001). Understanding Audiences: Theory and Method.
New Delhi; Sage Publications.
Sullivan, John L (2012). Media Audiences. Effects, Users, Institutions, and
Power. New Delhi; Sage Publications.
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85 8
COMMUNICATION THEORIES WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PERSUASION
THEORY, CULTIVATION THEORY AND
USES AND GRATIFICATIONS THEORY
Unit Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Communication Theories
8.2.1 Birth of Communication Theories
8.2.2 Media and Audience: Cause -Effect Relationship
8.3 Persuasion Theory
8.4 Cultivation Theory
8.5 Uses and Gratification Theory
8.6 Let’s Sum It Up
8.7 Questions
8.8 References
8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
x Definition of Communication Theories
x Theories of the cause -effect relationship between media and audience
x Importance of communication theories in Public Re lations
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The scholars of philosophy and psychology have always demonstrated the
importance of communication in the daily lives of humans. The term simply
means the dissemination of information between individuals, groups, or
masses. The t ransformation of the term to mass communication has
identified the development of various tools of communication, known as
mass media. These mass mediums provide an opportunity to receive a large
amount of information from a large audience at the same time . This
procedure further leads to the emergence of public communication.
Public communication certainly plays a pivotal role in the practice of Public
Relations. The massive consumption of the media by the audience does
affect them in several ways. The me dia acts as a mediator between the
audience and PR professionals. The utilization of media by Public Relations munotes.in

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86 practitioners helps them to reach the masses. Similarly, it also helps them
to maintain media relations. Thus, Public Relations practitioners nee d to
understand the various aspects of media and the heavy influence media has
on the audience.
This chapter focuses on the impact media can have on the receivers of the
content. It will help to understand the theoretical perspective of
communication and mass media. It describes the nature and scope of
communication theories. The chapter will also explain the cause -and-effect
relationship between media and the audience. It will describe the
importance of communication theories in PR with special reference to
persuasion theory, cultivation theory, and uses and gratification theory.
8.2 COMMUNICATION TH EORIES
Communication is an interchanging term based on human behaviour and
societal norms. Social and Communication scholars studied the
development of comm unication and its relation to human behaviour and
societal norms, known as communication theories.
Theory, as explained by Kenneth Bailey, is, "explanations and predictions
of social phenomena by relating the subject of interest to some other
phenomena" ( 1982, p.41). Bailey here tries to explain the interconnection
of the media and its relationship with the sociological and psychological
behaviour of the audience who consumes it.
Based upon the conclusions drawn by Anaeto et al., (2002), to understand
the communication theory, the following assumptions need to be
considered:
1. The communication system and its procedure cannot be explained and
established within one theory. There are multiple theories developed
by scholars to explain the system and the pro cess of mass
communication.
2. Mass communication theories are interrelated with other social
sciences’ theories like sociology, psychology, linguistics, etc.
3. Mass Communication theories are human constructions, they are
completely constructed on the id eology of the theorists. Similarly,
theories are dynamic in nature and apply to contemporary society.
8.2.1 Birth of Communication Theories:
The foundation of communication theories dates back to the emergence of
the industrial revolution which modified t he ways society lives, converses,
and communicates. The adaptation of the innovations developed in the
revolution led to the conversion of traditional society into urban and modern
societies. The modernized population not only raised the lifestyle goods
consumption but also media consumption at large. Urban societies then
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Theory and Uses and
Gratifications Theory Based on the increasing consumption of media, communication scholars
divided communication theories into four categories. These categor ies
differ from each other in Baran & Davis (2012, p. 12)
1. Their goals
2. The nature of the theory
3. Their perception of the expansion of knowledge
4. Their perception of the roles of theory in research and theory building.
Postpositivist Theory:
Post p ositivism talks about the dynamic nature of human behaviour. Post
positivism theory in mass communication explains human behaviour is
predictable to conduct a systematic observation of media and its audience.
The phenomena help scholars to understand the t heoretical aspects of the
reaction of the audience to the content they consume. The postpositivist
aims to understand the connection between an explanation of the content,
predicting the impact of the content, and understanding the control that
impact is h aving on the audience. For instance, when a researcher is
approaching to explain digital marketing and buying behaviour of the
audience, s/he tries to predict the growth in e -commerce due to digital
marketing and the platforms of digital marketing are caus ing the growth and
how it is controlling buying behaviour of the audience.
Hermeneutic Theory:
The theory is known as the interpretive theory. It focuses on the
understanding of the interpretation of the messages sent by the various
media channels. The the ory helps the research scholars to understand the
reaction given by the receiver to a certain message. It also aims to describe
the subjectiveness of the reaction to the message. It explains, “how
knowledge is advanced and relies on the subjective interact ion between the
observer and his/her community” (Baran & Davis, 2012, p.13). The idea
defines that the subjective reaction of the audience is dependent upon the
various experiences, preferences, and communication with each other in the
social world. For in stance, the preferences of the audience about news
consumption platforms will be dependent upon their social understanding
and opinions about the platforms.
Critical Theory:
Critical theory as the name suggests focuses on the critical aspect of the
social world. Critical theorists try to identify the changes required in society.
They believe that the present structure of society has some flaws and with
the help of political and economic power, society can be transformed into a
better world. In the mid -19th century, Marx and Engels explained, those
who have the power and control the material production (the economic
control) also control the mental production (the mindset of the people).
Following Marx, Gramsci described how news media along with the other
hegemonic social organizations contributed to controlling the ideology of
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88 It is the goal of the critical theorists to understand how various forms of
media as mass mediums can be used as a weapon to bring changes in society
by cultivating the media messages in the minds of the people. The critical
theory explains the ownership of media by elites and how corporates
employ media as a tool to deliver framed messages.
Normative Theories:
Normative theories describe the set of systems and structur es based on
which media organisations can function in various political and social
environments. The theories also explain the role media plays in the
development of society.
These various communication theories have experienced transformation,
which furt her divides the journey of media theories into four eras or trends.
These eras are dependent upon the social and cultural ideologies of the two
different classes in society. Each theory from each of these eras serves
certain important purposes and has face d some modification or alteration in
the future.
1. The trend of Mass Society and Mass Culture
Mass society is defined as a society that comprises individuals with
intellectual clones of each other. In mass society, people are
homogeneous and have similar thinking process. The mass society
believes that the industrialization and dehumanizing effect of the
industrial revolution is responsible for all the disruptions happening
in society and for all wrongs happening in the 19th century. Major
social scholars think that mass media symbolizes the disturbance and
disorders in society.
Early media theories explained the relationship between media and
society. The major perspective that emerged is known as mass society
theory. Baran & Davis, (2012), explained mas s society theory as,
“collections of conflicting notions developed to make sense of what
was happening as industrialization allowed big cities to spring up and
expand”. The theory believed that mass media is all -powerful and
works as an influencer. Masses are vulnerable to the messages shared
by the media. In the era of mass culture, society heavily criticized
media, and importance was given to the message senders, which is the
elites, owners of the industries, wanting to control the society and
minds of th e audience.
2. The trend of Scientific Perspective: Emergence of Limited -Effects
Theory:
Several sociological transformations and world events resulted in the
development of mass media at large. The media was used as a weapon
by many elites and political leaders to propagate their agenda and
ideologies. Along with newspapers, broadcast and audio -visual
mediums were utilized to control the masses, with the hope of the
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Persuasion Theory, Cultivation
Theory and Uses and
Gratifications Theory observed such exercise s of media and conducted a scientific research
study which concluded that media is not as powerful as it was stated
by the elites. The audience is more influenced by the participatory
elements like peers, family, and other elites in society. Instead of
being a disruptive factor in society, the media supports the societal
trends and strengths of the current political agenda. This process was
the beginning of the era - of limited effects research, stating that media
indirectly shape the mindset, it is the opi nion leaders, who convey the
message as per their ideologies.
Joseph Klapper, communication consultant and chief spokesperson
for limited effects perspective, published a book stating that media’s
effects can extend from small to negligible. In the progra m on mass
media organised by the Child Study Association of America in 1960,
Klapper stated:
“I think it has been very well demonstrated that the mass media do
not serve as the primary determinant or even as a particularly
important determinant of any of t he basic attitudes or the basic
behaviour patterns of either children or adults. This is not to say that
they do not influence at all, but only that influence seems to be
incidental to other forces or it is not incidental, to pertain to rather
superficial aspects of attitude or behaviour rather than to basic
attitudes and behaviour” (Sparks, 2013).
3. The trend of Cultural Perspective:
Theories with a quantitative approach were developed during this era.
Theorists and social science researchers emerged wit h the approach
of reductionists - who reduced the complicated communication
systems and transformed them into narrower proposals for media. As
society was observing the incorporation of limited effects theory in
society, left -wing European socialists belie ved that the media enabled
the elites and upper class of the society to dominate the audience.
Elites utilized mass media to promote cultural hegemony. Values,
beliefs, and ideologies of the elites are framed and broadcasted within
the narratives of diffe rent media shows. This observation about mass
media is referred to as neo -Marxism.
4. The trend of contemporary meaning -making:
The era recognizes that the audience or receiver of the message is
active and consumes media for meaningful experiences. Mass m edia
is indeed powerful, but the power media can employ is dependent
upon the receiver of the message. The influence of media is dependent
upon the meaning derived by the users. The era focuses on the media
selection phenomenon - a phenomenon that explains that audiences
are the king, they select and decide what to consume or not. The era
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90 8.2.2 Media and Audience: Cause -Effect Relationship:
To understand the relationship between media a nd audience, it is first
important to study the media effects research conducted by scholars over
the years. Since the inception of media, scholars did try to find out the effect
of media on public opinion. From major case studies like the congress -Spain
war in 1898, wartime propaganda during the world war, the emergence of
broadcast media, the strength of photographs and the Vietnam war, to
studies conducted by McCombs and Shaw, many scholars tried to
understand whether media can mould public opinion. In t his chapter, the
cause -effect relationship between media and audience is explained with the
help of the emergence of various theories and mediums.
In the 1950s, during the Vietnam war, it is generally believed that the US
might have won the war had it not been for the interference of the media.
From the late 1960s onwards, public opinion in the United States began to
sharply oppose the war, and this is blamed on US media. Vietnam was the
first war that issued full freedom to the press, allowing the media to cover
the war as they saw it. Due to the absence of censorship, gruesome images
were often depicted for the public’s viewing. Many believe the freedom
given to the press to be a mistake, as it is believed to have drawn public
opinion against the war.
One of the major studies that were conducted to observe the impact of films
on the audience is Payne Funds. The Payne Fund agreed to fund a series of
studies to investigate the impact of movies on children and adolescents.
Shearon Lowery and Melvin DeFleur wh ile explaining the conclusions of
the Payne Fund studies in their book, Milestones in Mass Communication
Research, stated, “the Payne Fund Studies undoubtedly presented a
reasonably valid picture of the influences of the movies of the 1920s on the
youth of that period. The films were an influence on attitudes; they provided
models for behaviour; they shaped interpretations of life. They probably had
as many prosocial influences (or at least harmless influences) as those that
disturbed adults of the time”.
With the conclusions of the Payne fund studies and wartime propaganda, it
was believed that mass media are powerful identities and are capable of
influence. Based on the observations, the need to state the theory was
released in this era. As a result, magic bullet theory/hypodermic needle
theory was introduced. According to the theory, the messages delivered by
the media are compared to the shotgun bullet or needle, stating that, in the
communication process, messages are shot at the audience, with the help of
a medium. The message will have a powerful and forceful effect on those
who possess it.
The dawn of Television in the 1950s and 1970s in foreign countries and
India respectively was the origin of the new media effects. The craze of
Television all over the world, the introduction of the daily soaps and live
coverage of the gulf war I, initiated the studies of the heavy impact of TV
on the viewers. It includes theories like agenda -setting theory, priming,
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Theory and Uses and
Gratifications Theory sets an agenda while delivering the information. McCombs and Shaw
believed that TV channels frame the content in such a way that it tells the
viewers the ‘important’ events and ‘important’ perspectives of the event.
Types of Medi a Effects:
Today, understanding media effects are more complex and varies based on
the type of media and audience. Depending on the message, the medium,
and the audience, the media effect differs from micro level to macro level.
McLeod and Reeves practical ly conceptualized the media effects by using
some category schemes (Sparks, 2013). Following are some of the
categories of media effects:
1. Micro -Level or Macro -Level effects:
McLeod and Reeves believed that micro -level effects on individual
media consume rs. Micro -level effects observe the impact any form of
media is having on single individuals, on their behaviour, and their
preferences. For instance, the research study aims to understand the
preferences of the medium of an audience to watch films, and wi ll
consider the micro -level effect, as the preferences are subjective, and
they differ from individual to individual. Whereas the macro -level
effect observes the impact of the media messages on the large
community. For example, controversies and hashtag ca mpaigns on
social media. For instance, in October 2020, the jewelry brand
Tanishq released an advertisement featuring an interfaith baby
shower. The ad caused huge controversy on social media and led to
various hashtag campaigns run by certain communities. Media
messages causing such an impact are examples of macro -level effects.
2. Content -Specific or Diffuse -General Effects:
According to McLeod and Reeves, some media effects are purely
based on the content a consumer consumes. For example, kids who
watch Shin Chan cartoons might adopt different behavioural patterns
than kids who do not watch. For instance, research studies on the
impact of PUBG games on the audience. This research may study how
specific content (PUBG) is affecting those who play the game. On the
other hand, general effects are those that are observed generally and
might not relate to the content. For instance, due to the emergence of
OTT platforms, consumption of TV amongst youths is decreased or
youth and social media addiction. Such studi es will conclude the
overall general results.
3. Attitudinal VS Behavioural VS Cognitive Changes:
In the 1980s, while explaining the media effects research, McLeod
and Reeves stated, “Media effects research is very nearly the history
of attitude change re search”. They explained that media does not only
affects the attitudes of the audience but also causes changes and
transformations in the behaviour and the thinking process of the
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92 shape the op inion of the audience. Media impacts differently on the
attitude, behaviour, and minds of the consumers.
4. Alteration VS Stabilization:
Along with the media’s capacity to change the opinion of the
audience, McLeod and Reeves also believed that instead of
transforming the opinion, the media is also capable of making the
audience alter their decisions. For example, an advertisement has the
persuasive power which will make the consumer switch their brand.
On the contrary, some of the advertisements help the c onsumers to
stabilize their decisions about their brand. Researchers from
Columbia University, Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel
Gaudet conducted a research study to understand ‘how and why
people decide to vote as they did. The study is recogni zed as The
People’s Choice Study. The study investigated that radio commercials
strengthened the prior voting decisions of the voters. People are more
likely to consume an advertisement for their preferred candidates and
became more committed to them. This indicates that instead of
altering and adopting new opinions, media can also help the audience
to stabilize and be firm on their own opinions.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain the four categories of media theories.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. What are the various trends of media theories?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_______________ _____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Explain in brief various types of media effects.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________ ______________________________
____________________________________________________________
8. 3 PERSUASION THEO RY
The term persuasion, derived from the word to persuade, means to induce
one to believe or to perform an action. Simons (1976) explains persuasi on
as, “a human communication designed to influence the autonomous
judgments and actions of others”. He believes that persuasion is an attempt
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Persuasion Theory, Cultivation
Theory and Uses and
Gratifications Theory to influence the beliefs, values, or attitudes of others. But it is not torture or
any other form of coercion, no r the pressure to follow any group or
authority. Whereas O’Keefe (1990) defines persuasion with the help of a
communication system. He argues that the process of persuasion has some
prerequisite conditions. The message or the content sent by the sender
involves intent and the goal is to achieve that intent. The receiver of the
message should consider receiving the persuasive content. This entire
procedure is communicational.
The persuasion theory in media comprises various theories which define
persuasion from the perspective of attitudes, beliefs, values, knowledge, and
predispositions of the audience.
8.3.1 Theory of Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values:
The theory was developed by psychologist Milton Rokeach in 1968 who
argued that the behaviour of an individ ual is dependent upon the attitude of
the individual. The attitude of the audience helps the sender to predict their
behaviour. This attitude is shaped by an individual’s school of beliefs and
values. Rokeach defines beliefs as, “any simple proposition, co nscious or
unconscious, inferred from what a person says or does.” He also explained
values as, “beliefs which are central to an individual’s sense of sense and
difficult to change.” (Travis & Lordan, 2020). The theory helps PR
professionals to understand that attitude leads to the behaviour of the
audience.
8.3.2 Theory of Reasoned Action:
The theory suggests that every behaviour of an individual has an intention
behind it. Individuals are likely to justify their actions with the help of
reason to perform the same. They are more likely to engage, invest an
amount of effort, and perform the action actively if it is intended. O’Keefe
(2015) says, “the theory of reasoned action is considered unquestionably the
most influential general framework for understand ing the determinants of
voluntary action”. According to Ajzen & Fishbein (1975), the intentions or
the reasons are dependent upon the personal attitude of an individual. Along
with personal attitude, several other subjective norms like peer perception,
and societal judgements are also taken into account. Figure 8.1 explains
Ajzen & Fishbein perception of the theory of reasoned action.
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94 8.3.3 Social Judgement Theory:
The theory proposes that the persuasive nature of the message is based on
the individual’s opinion and attitude towards the topic. Sherif & Hovland
(1961), and Sherif et al. (1965) described three categories of an individual’s
attitudes and judgement. First is, the latitude of acceptance, the concepts
which individual judges and finds acceptabl e. Second is the latitude of
rejection, the concepts which individual judges and finds unacceptable. The
third is the latitude of non -commitment, the concept for which an
individual does not carry any opinion and has a neutral stand.
The social judgement theory explains that the map of an individual’s
behaviour is dependent upon the amount of ego involved (interest involved)
of an individual in that topic. If an individual is highly interested or highly
ego involved in the topic, the individual believes t hat the topic is crucial and
will pay more attention to it (Dainton, 2004).
Figure 8.2 explains the procedure of social judgement theory, arguing the
level of ego involved while receiving the message and its impact on the
latitude of acceptance, non -comm itment, or rejection.
8.3.4 Elaboration Likelihood Model:
The model argues that persuasive message processes through the cognitive
behaviour of a receiver. The model proposes that there are two routes of
human persuasion. The human decision process occurs in two ways, the
peripheral route, and the central route, stating that attitude changes appear
to be temporary and long -lasting respectively. The model tries to articulate
that the persuasion of the message is dependent on the thinking ability of a
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95 Communication Theories with Special Reference to
Persuasion Theory, Cultivation
Theory and Uses and
Gratifications Theory human. It explains whether the thoughts of a receiver can be changed
immediately by employing a peripheral route or the receiver consumes a
certain amount of time to decide by deploying a central route.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is persuasion theory?
_______________________________________________ _____________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. Explain in brief the theory of reasoned action.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________ _________________________________________
8.4 CULTIVATION THEO RY
The theory proposes that constant consumption of the media messages
influences the mindset of the audience, resulting in the audience changing
their perception. The commun ication scholar George Gerbner observed two
types of media consumers with special reference to television viewers. He
divided the viewers into two categories, heavy viewers (the one who views
TV for more than four hours) and light viewers (those who view T V for less
than four hours). Gerbner hypothesized that those who watch television for
a long time are more likely to be influenced as they are being more
bombarded by the content than those who watch it for a lesser time.
The media can build a perception. It states that, with the help of
advertisements, brands can reform or develop the perception of an audience
about a product, phenomenon, or social activity by continuously
bombarding and cultivating the same perception. For example, fairness
cream brands over the years have cultivated the perception of the good -
looking concept. This paradox of cultivating a thought can be employed to
build the positive aspects of society. For instance, sanitary napkin
advertisements cultivate that with their brand, menstru ation is a simple and
easily bearable process.
In today’s digitized world, social media is one of the platforms which is
used to influence the audience. Public Relations practitioners incorporate
various social media strategies to engage the audience. An easier example
of this can be movie PR. Public Relations practice for a movie begins almost
a year ago from the date of the movie, which generates curiosity in the
minds of an audience, resulting in them being aware of every update of a
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96 8.5 USES AN D GRATIFICATION THEO RY
The uses and gratification theory explains the connection between the
media -audience relationship and media consumption by the audience. Katz,
Blumler, and Gurevitch (1973) in their paper ‘Uses and Gratification
Research’ says that “there are certain social and psychological origins of
needs which generate expectations of the mass media or other sources,
which lead to a differential pattern of media exposure (or engagement in
other activities), resulting in need gratifications and o ther consequences”.
Certain needs of humans are based on social and psychological systems
which encourage the needs and expectations from mass media. These are
gratified after consuming or exposure to the particular media.
The application of this is built upon basic assumptions. One of the important
assumptions is, that an audience who is consuming the media must be an
active participant. Katz, Gurevitch, and Hass, (1973) listed down thirty -five
needs based on the literature on the social and psychological functions of
the mass media, which they classified into five meaningful groups.
1. Cognitive Need: The need to enhance information, knowledge, and
understanding. For example, audiences use social media platform
telegram for educational purposes, to get st udy notes, and practice
papers to satisfy their cognitive need for knowledge.
2. Affective Need: It relates to emotional satisfaction and pleasurable
experience. For example, the audience watching a movie of their
favourite artist.
3. Integrative Need: It is related to the need of boosting confidence,
stability, status, etc. It is the combination of cognitive and affective
needs. For example, readers read self -help books to gain motivation.
4. Social Integrative Need: To increase the bond between friends and
family. For instance, watching a series because your peer is acting in
the same.
5. Tension -Release Need: To gain some relaxation and entertainment.
For example, watching comedy genre films for entertainment
purposes.
Public Relations practitioners us ing media as a mediator between them, and
the audience needs to understand the audience’s demand for the content and
the appropriate platform for the same. PR practitioners can incorporate the
theory to determine how to engage an audience by recognizing th eir needs.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is cultivation theory?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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Theory and Uses and
Gratifications Theory __________________________________ __________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. What are the various needs mentioned in the uses and gratification
theory?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
______________________________________ ______________________
____________________________________________________________
8.6 LET’S SUM IT UP
Public Relations is one of the subfields of mass communication, focusing
on public communication, and playing a pivotal role in the process of public
communication. Since the evolution of mass media, communication
scholars have observed the trends of effects of these developed and
upcoming mass mediums, transforming the mindset and attitudes of the
content receiver, and developed several theories indicating the positive and
negative sides of the media.
These communication theories were divided into four categories, each
category having its characteristics. These categories differ fr om one another
by distinguishing between the perception of media, the content it delivers,
and its impact on the audience. These categories of communication theories
were observed and defined in different eras of mass communication namely,
the era of mass society and mass culture, the era of scientific perspective,
the trend of cultural perspective, and the trend of contemporary meaning -
making. Theories developed in these different era causes several types of
media effects, known as, micro -macro level of me dia effects, content -
specific and diffuse general effect, the effect of attitudinal vs behavioural
vs cognitive change, and the effect of alteration vs stabilization.
In the field of Public Relations, it is important to understand how media
being the media tor of sender and receiver can or cannot persuade the
audience with different persuasion theories like the theory of beliefs,
attitudes, theory of reasoned action, social judgement theory, and an
elaboration likelihood model. It is also important for Publi c Relations
practitioners to understand how media can cultivate new perceptions
amongst the audience, and how audiences use media to gratify their certain
needs.
8.7 QUESTIONS
1. Explain the history of mass communication theories?
2. Explain the cause -effect relationship between media and audience?
3. What is social judgement theory? explain its application with
reference to Public Relations.
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98 5. Why it is important for Public Relations pr actitioners to understand
the uses and gratification theory?
8.8 REFERENCES
Al-Suqri, M.N., & Al -Kharusi, R.M. (2015). Ajzen and Fishbein's Theory
of Reasoned Action (TRA) (1980).
Bailey, K. D. (1994). Methods of Social Research . Simon and Schuster.
https:/ /books.google.co.in/books/about/Methods_of_Social_Research.html
?id=PVDQHrCezMoC&redir_esc=y
Baran, S. J., & Davis, D. K. (2012). Mass Communication Theory:
Foundations, Ferment, and Future . Cengage Learning.
Daiton. (2004, September 16). Explaining Theorie s of Persuasion . Sage
Publication. https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm -
binaries/4985_Dainton_Chapter_5.pdf
Introductory guide to persuasion in communication studies. (n.d.). In
Communication research guides . Master’s in communications.
https:// www.mastersincommunications.com/research/persuasion/
Lordan, E. J., & Travis, E. S. (2020). Public Relations Theory . SAGE
Publications.
O’Keefe, D. J. (2015). Persuasion: Theory and Research. SAGE
Publications.
Simons, H. W., Gronbeck, B. E., & Morreale, J . (2001). Persuasion in
Society (H. W. Simons, Ed.). SAGE Publications.
Sherif, M., & Hovland, C. I. (1961). Social judgment: Assimilation and
contrast effects in communication and attitude change. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press.
Sherif, C.W., Sherif , M., & Nebergall, R. E. (1965). Attitudes and attitude
change: The social judgment -involvement approach. Philadelphia, PA: W.
B. Saunders.
Sparks, G. G. (2012). Media Effects Research: A Basic Overview . Cengage
Learning.
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99 9
COMMUNICATION MODELS WITH
EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY (BANDURA),
CARL HOVLAND, GATEKEEPING,
FRAMING AND AGENDA SETTING
Unit Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Models Of Communication
9.3 Meaning and Definition
9.4 Process Of Communication
9.5 DEVELOPING COMMUNICATION MODELS
9.6 SOME IMPORTANT MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
9.7 Introduction To Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura
9.8 Carl Hovland’s Persuasion Theory
9.9 Elaboration Likelihood Model
9.10 Gatekeeping Theory
9.11 Framing Theory & Agenda Setting Theory
9.12 Conclusion
9.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to understand why a model is
important to conceptualise and organize the process of Communication:
After going through this unit , you should be able to: -
x Define Communication Models
x Understand the Nature and Scope of Communication Models
x Establish and explore the relationship & Signification and Trends of
Communication Models and
9.1 INTRODUCTION
We know that communicat ion is an important part of our life. With the
growing integration of social media, effective communication has become
even more crucial. In this Unit, we shall explore what a communication
model is, how the various communication models have been developed and
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100 Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura, Carl Hovland, Gatekeeping,
Framing and Agenda Setting Theories.
9.2 MODELS OF COMMUNICAT ION
In order to understand and analyse the proces s of communication, we need
to understand its ‘Model’. A model is a systematic representation of a
process that is mechanical which effectively explains human
communication at a glance.
9.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION
A model is a mechanistic representatio n of a reality. A good model comes
closer and closer to reality as accurately as it can get. But the model is not
the reality, it is an abstraction, a blueprint of how communication occurs in
reality. For example, a prototype miniature model of a car is on ly a
representation of how the real car would be.
The model in communication leads to decoding a simplistic version of
communication to understanding a more complex and intricate process of
mass communication. Models are assumptions made by theorists to e xplain
how communication occurs and what effect it has on society and the
individual. Variety of models exist, and these explain the different
components and structural process of communication flow and the role it
plays in each step. The communication mod els you would read in this unit
are carefully chosen to make you understand the illustration of how the
scholars have tried to articulate the process and explain the significance of
any aspect of communication that is common to every dimension in the
commu nication process.
Since communication is a dynamic process involving transmission, a
mechanistic representation makes it easier to explain how communication
flows from one stage to another and its interplay with human variables.
Models are pictorial that showcase the transmission process from the
communicator to the receiver.
9.4 PROCESS OF COMMUNICA TION
Let us begin with the basic understanding of the communication process.
The simple model of communication as mentioned in the above section is
based on the sender sending a message and the receiver receiving it. For
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Figure 1:
At the first instance the model receives the various variables involved in a
communication loop and it also represents the interdependence of each one
of them as the message is being sent from sender to the receiver. For
example, in the communication process there has to be a sender who sets
the intention and communicates the message; what to communicate is the
choice of the sender; whom to communicate is the sender’s decision & how
to communicate is the choice of channel.
In order for the communication to be a successful one the sender should be
able to know the receiver’s response, whether the response is as intended
only t hen can the next step of the communication flow can begin. In order
to establish the passage to an ongoing communication flow, there has to be
interaction, the interdependence of relationships of the various human
variables.
This basic process of communic ation applies to the process of mass
communication. But the latter contains a more complex system because of
the distinct types of variables involved. For e.g., consider an organization
sending a message/information out the receivers are not single but mul tiple.
And messages to multiple receivers are far more complicated, complex,
scattered, and large -scale offering communication to a heterogeneous mix
of audiences. This therefore means that mass communication is often on the
way and not as interactional as a personalised individual message would be.
1. Why are models needed in communication?
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ACTIVITY 1
Construct a simple model of communication based on a conversation you
have had with your friend in a café. And build another model of
communication you have had with a group of friends over social media.
Mention at least four elements of difference between the two.
9.5 DEVELOPING COMMUNI CATION MODELS
Several attempts have been made by scholars in th e past to explain the
communication process via several models. Some are the simplistic
versions and some complex depending on what aspect of the process is
being explained.
In order to understand this let's dive deeper into the functions of the models.
There are four functions or purposes of models identified by Gerbner (1956)
x Organizing Function; The model shows how the various elements in
communication are interlinked with each other
x Heuristic Function: Here the model can help researchers find out new
hypotheses to test and new directions to look at communication.
x Predic tive Function: In this model we know the factors and
relationships and we can predict or guess the outcome.
x Measurement Function: In this the model can A model serving this
function can contain explicit statements about the relative importance
of certain components and can show specific means for measuring a
particular dimension of communication.
The initial models of communication were simple based on ‘speaker -
speech -audience.’ The Aristotelian model had these steps, and its motive
was “persuasion.” Th is one -way initial model became redundant once we
reached a more dynamic two -way process. We shall learn about some
important models of communications in the upcoming section.
9.6 SOME IMPORTANT MOD ELS OF
COMMUNICATION
In this segment we learn about som e important models of communication
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Theory (Bandura),
Carl Hovland, Gatekeeping,
Framing and Agenda Setting We begin with the Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication that has
the most widely accepted base. Including Gerbner and the Lasswell Model.
Learning about these best -known communication models you shall be able
to dive deeper into the knowledge of it.
The Lasswell Model; Merely consists of a series of questions in Lasswell’s
view of communication in 1948.
Who? Says What? In Which Channel? To Whom? With What Effect?
The Shannon and Weaver Model.
This model consists of five steps (Shanon and Weaver Model, 1949)
1. Information source of the Speaker: Brain of the speaker
2. Transmitter: what the speaker says verbally (verbal mechanism)
3. Receiver: Wh at the receiver hears (receiving mechanism)
4. Destination: The brain of the receiver
5. Noise Source: Any outside disturbance that affects the transmission
of the messages.
The above five elements of the Model are depicted in the diagram below

Figure 2. (Shanon and Weaver Model, 1949)
The Gerbner Model
Gerbner created the model in 1956 in which he demonstrates the importance
of perception, context of message and the participant’s reaction. This model
is an extension of the Laswell model. G erbner’s model gives the verbal
aspect of communication where someone observing an event gives
feedback about the event.
Below is the schematic representation of the Gerbner model
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104
Figure 3: Source: Gerbner’s basic generalised model Adapted from Gerbner
1956 Communication Theory.org
Schramm’s Model of Communication
There are four models included in the Schramm’s model. As you have read
in the earlier unit the models start from basic to complex versions. This shall
be demonstrated in the upcoming figu res.

Figure 4 Source Schramm’s Model of Communication 1954 (Encoding,
Decoding & Interpreting)
Wilbur Schramm viewed the whole communication process as a complex
one in the context of social, cultural, and personal factors.
CHE CK YOUR PROGRESS
Use the space provided for your answers
Mention the major features of each of these models.
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Theory (Bandura),
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Framing and Agenda Setting 1. Shannon and Weaver Model: ………………………………………
2. Harold Lasswell Model: …………………………………………….
3. Schramm’s Model of Communication: ………………………………
Activity 2
Describe the role of feedback and noise between the speaker and voters in
an election campaign. Highlight the role of feedback, noise and speaker
based on Schramm’s Model of communication.
9.7 INTRODUCTION TO SO CIAL LEARNING
THEORY BY ALBERT BANDURA
Think about how you learnt driving? Riding a cycle, how to write the
alphabets? I am quite sure you acquired and learnt these skills by seeing
others doing it. This is exactly what social cognitive psychologist Albert
Bandura believed in. Bandura says that unlike the other traditional theories
humans learn through observation, initiation, and modelling.
In his book ‘Social Learning Theory’ in 1977 he stated, "most human
behaviour is learned observationally through modelling: from observing
others o ne forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on
later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action." In
this segment we take a deep dive into Albert Bandura’s social learning
theory and how self -efficacy is actually the core tenant of the premise of his
theory. Let us first understand the Bobo Doll Experiment.
The Bobo Doll Experiment:
Albert Bandura gave the incredibly famous ‘Bobo Doll’ experiment. In this
experiment the researchers abused the bobo doll verbally and physi cally
while the preschool children, 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3 to 6 years
of age were the sample size. Bandura wanted to check the social learning of
aggression amongst the children.
For better understanding let us look at the lab model of the exp eriment

Fig 5 Source ( www.simplypsychology.com )
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106 As you can see the lab experiment was conducted in three stages:
1. Stage 1 – Modelling Stage
2. Stage 2 – Aggression Arousal
3. Stage 3 - Test for delaye d imitation
Results:
x Children who were exposed to the aggressive model made far more
aggressive advances as compared to those in the non -aggressive
groups.
x There was evidence of non-aggressive imitative behaviour among
those children who had observed aggressive behaviour.
x Girls showed more aggression against the male model as compared to
the female model. However, the verbal aggression was a lot more
towards the female doll compared to the male. While the effects of
gender were reversed when it came to punching the number of times,
they punched the Bobo doll.
x Boys were more likely to imitate the same sex models than the girls.
x And boys were far more likely to imitate the acts of physical
aggression compared to that by girls. While the levels of v erbal
aggression showed hardly any difference between the two.
The reason we delved into the Bobo Doll Experiment is because it proves
the premise on which the Social Learning Theory is based, i.e., observation
forms the changes in behavioural patterns.
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura’s 1977 social learning theory is a behaviourist theory. It
focuses on two important aspects namely:
x Mediating responses always occur between the stimuli and the
responses
x All behaviour is learnt from the environment externally via
observational learning
We saw how observational learning induces aggression and its degree of
intensity. Social learning theory emphasises on learning by imitation. Here
are some important points on the Social Learning Theory.
1. Human beings chose to perform a behaviour or dismiss it seeing the
kind of punishment or reward attached to it.
2. According to Bandura’s SLT we l earn by learning from social context
observations. Reinforcements can be both positive or negative and
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Framing and Agenda Setting 3. SLT suggests that as human beings we always learn via imitation
which happens post observation
4. In the next st age comes modelling where we are more likely to model
the behaviour of persons who we perceive to be similar to us.
Albert Bandura said that learning can happen via observation and cognition
and does not necessarily result in a behaviour change.
Mediation al Process
Bandura proposed the mediational approach happens four stages as follows:
x Attention: Focusing on the model, attention would increase when the
behaviour would be more striking, different or a little more powerful
or prestigious
x Retention: Retention of the behaviour can happen via rehearsal
x Reproduction: the imitation of the behaviour just observed
x Motivation: This stage occurs when you have to demonstrate the
behaviour that you learnt, this can be achieved by reinforcement and
punishment, which we read about in the previous section.
The following diagram shows the stages i nvolved in the mediational process


Figure: 5. Source: (Nabavi, 2012)
This figure above by Nabavi shows the model of SLT used on how to learn
from role models by students.
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108 Application of Social Learning Theory in PR

Figure 6: Social Learning Theo ry Triangle source: (sites.psu.edu)
The above figure shows that social learning theory is a combination of
cognitive, environmental, and behavioural factors that determine human
behaviour.
From this we shall now understand how the SLT theory can be applie d in
Public Relations.
Public Relations have a lot to do with how the target audience can be
pursued to perform a particular behaviour. An example of this could be
when Public Relations is used while promotions. An example of this is when
a company tries t o sell a product and wants to influence the people into
using the product will use examples from real “people next door” kind
influencers rather than celebs to pursue you into buying the product.
Another example of the application of the SLT theory is tha t as PR
professionals you will have to handle crises. When crises happen each time,
it would be a different kind but the way the crisis communication is handled
by observing different behaviours of how the crisis was handled previously
and what is the best practise that can be deployed to successfully sort the
crises out.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Use the Social Learning Theory to explain a trait that you reinforced in your
life by imitating your favourite movie star, popstar.
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Carl Hovland, Gatekeeping,
Framing and Agenda Setting ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
9.8 CARL HOVLAND’S PERSU ASION THEORY
In the previous unit we learnt about how Social Learning Theory influences
and determines behaviour changes. In this unit we shall learn about the
Persuasion theory by Carl Hovland. In order to understan d persuasion let's
first understand what attitude is. Attitude is our evaluation of a situation,
person, or an object.
During World War II, Carl Hovland studied soldiers' motivation and
attitude change in the US department of defence. He analysed people’s
resistance to changing their existing opinions. Hovland at Yale University
demonstrated that certain features of the source of the persuasive message,
its content, and the manner in which its being delivered will impact on how
effective the persuasion powe r of the message is (Communication and
persuasion, 1953).
Carl Hovland’s model of persuasion theory has three most key factors i.e.,
the source, the message, and the audience.
x Source: if the source is credible the likelihood to be persuaded is
higher.
x Message: Hovland states that the content of the message is
particularly important in order to create the persuasive act, it needs to
be convincing enough
x Audience: Who is being persuaded, the audience their cultural
background, their belief systems thes e will be determining factors on
how persuasion works on them.
In the following schematic you will give you a clear picture of Hovland’s
model of persuasion and communication:

Figure 6: Source; https://doi.org/10.1007/978 -1-4419 -1428 -6_1928
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110 9.9 ELABORATION LIKELIHO OD MODEL
The elaboration likelihood model is a dual process theory given by Richard
Petty and John Cacioppo in the 1980s. It explains the change in attitudes.
This model state s that attitudinal change in other words persuasion can be
achieved in two paths: Central and Peripheral.
To better understand this model, look at the figure below.

Figure 7: Source Lumen Learning
Central route is completely logic driven and utilises dat a and facts to
convince people hence you see the ‘high effort’ in the evaluation of the
message in the above diagram.
The Peripheral route is the indirect route that uses peripheral cues to induce
positivity with the message unlike how in the central route the focus is on
logic and facts, in the peripheral route its entirely on emotions and positive
endorsements etc. An example for this could be the way Starbucks has
advertised its brand: the niche crowd would splurge on a Frappuccino for
the ‘gram’ aka Ins tagram. Whether there are other outlets selling better
coffee or not Starbucks has the emotion sedation for its audience. The
audience does not need to be very analytical or motivated to process this
message, hence you see ‘low effort’ involved in the proc essing of the
information.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Identify the key features of persuasion used in advertisements
____________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________ __________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
Activity 3 Create an ad campaign for a product. Analyse and apply how
the theory of persuasion plays relevance.
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Carl Hovland, Gatekeeping,
Framing and Agenda Setting 9.10 GATEKEEPING THEORY
Kurt Lewin first opined the term gatekeeping. This as the name suggests
means to block out anything that is unnece ssary information and the person
who takes this decision is called the ‘gatekeeper.’
The gatekeeper decides what information should go to the group or the
audience and what part of it should be withheld. Here the gatekeeper has its
own set of influences/be liefs be it cultural, political, social etc that would
influence his decision. And by deploying this process the gatekeeper will
filter the controversial, unnecessary information from spreading across to
the community. An example of this would be exercisin g parental control on
the TV or social media to safeguard children from viewing the adult content.
Let us apply this in the field of mass media. In news both electronic and
print media the editor decides what news should be put out and what should
not. Eve ry hour the channel receives a gazillion news items but it is the
editor’s prerogative to decide what goes out on the screen based on its
‘newsworthiness.’ Not every piece of information is declared as news. This
decision is based on editorial policy, orga nizational policies, and even own
ethics
To understand this better look at the following figure:


Figure 8 source communicationtheory.org
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
x Use the Space below to answer your questions
x After reading the Gatekeeping Theory what according to you are
some of the criticisms regarding it? (Mention at least three criticisms)
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112 ____________________________________________________________
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9.11 FRAMING THEORY & AGENDA SETTING
THEORY
Framing is a process used by publicists and media to ‘frame’ the minds of
the viewers/audiences in a certain way. Framing theory was propounded by
Erving Goffman in the year 1974 in his essay titled Frame Analyse s: An
Essay on the Organization of Experience. In his essay Goffman argued that
people would perceive the world with predisposed memories and
experiences in their lives, this is what Goffman calls as the ‘primary
framing’ (Calabrese, 2016).
In Public Relat ions Framing becomes imperative as it contributes to
moulding the audiences’ attitude and behaviour to design a particular
behavioural reaction that is desired. However even though the primary
framing exists with each individual and in each message and in each
message sent and received that shall determine the ‘framed opinions’
ultimately. Thus, especially in Public Relations the message needs to have
the frame to effectively generate a powerful campaign without which it shall
have no foundation.
Framing Th eory is closely intertwined with the ‘Agenda Setting Theory.’ It
focuses the attention on certain events or a part of an event rather than the
whole issue at hand. Both the theories focus on how the media pulls your
focus to a particular issue and sets the agenda in action.
Agenda Setting Theory was put forth by Maxwell McCombs and Donald
Shaw in 1972 in Public Opinion Quarterly. They said that the media sets the
agenda and tells you what to think about. The following diagram will give
you a better underst anding of the same.
There are three types of Agenda Setting:
x Public Agenda setting: When the public decides which story deserves
the focus and gives importance to it.
x Policy Agenda setting: When both public and the media together
influence the decisions of the public policy makers
x Media Agenda setting: When me dia decides which stories are
important
Agenda Setting Theory focuses on two assumptions, firstly media shapes
and filters what the audience sees, e.g., is How sensational is the story!
Second, the more attention media gives to a particular story more like ly it
is for the public to focus on that story.
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Figure 9: Source Pinterest
9.12 LET US SUM UP
The purpose of this unit has been to make you understand the
communication process through the various communication models. A
model as you read in this unit is a schematic representation of how
communication flows. The importance of these models lies in a)
Establishing the connection between the various variables b) highlights and
gives structure to the various elements involved in the process c) Brings out
the definitive paths explored in the process and helps in exploring further
avenues of research. We have identified the communication models from
the extremely basic to more complex ones and seen its relevance in the
application of Public Relations as well.
9.13 FURTHER READING
x Managing Public Relations, James Grunig and Todd Hunt, Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston, 1984
x Handbook of Public Relations, Robert L. Heath, Sage, 2001
x Introduction to communication studies by John Fiske, 1982, London
Refe rences
Calabrese, C. (2016). Framing in Public Relations. Pennsylvania: The
Pennsylvania State University.
Hovland, J. &., & Hovland, J. K. (1953). Communication and persuasion.
Yale: Yale University Press.
Nabavi, R. (2012). Bandura’s Social Learning Theo ry & Social Cognitive
Learning Theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 589.
WEAVER, S. A. (1949). Shanon and Weaver Model.
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114 10
REPUTATION MANAGEMENT
Unit Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Reputational risk
10.3 Origins of Rep utational Danger
10.4 Unsociable and impolite behaviour
10.5 Acting belatedly
10.6 Administration of corporate reputation
10.7 Building a crisis response and communication strategy:
10.8 The establishment of an early warning system:
10.9 A plan for office emergencies
10.10 Ethics in business and whistleblowing
10.11 Developing a policy for reporting misconduct
10.0 OBJECTIVES
x Explain the importance and objectives of reputation management.
x Discuss sources of reputational risk.
x Discuss the role of the HRM department in reputation management.
x Develop a strategy for introducing a reputation programme.
x Discuss the role and use of electronic media in reputation
management.
x Recommend guidelines for management to act appropriately during a
crisis.
x Propose a plan for dealing with an office emergency.
x Recommend a communication strategy to be used during a crisis.
x Discuss the impact of ethics on organisational reputation.
x Discuss the management of ethics in the workplace.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Perception — how the organisation is regarded by all stakeholders — and
Reality — the truth about a company's policies, prac tices, processes,
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115 Reputation Management Therefore, perception is intimately tied to the image of a corporation
project.
Another way to define the components of reputation is to say that it
comprises:
Images — how stakeholders perceive the organisation. Identity is what the
business claims it is. Personality — the essence of the business. The
alignment of these components is essential if we are to establish, maintain,
and defend the reputation of an organisation . Each of us contributes by
representing the organisation for which we work. The question is whether
or whether our image is favourable or negative. The manner in which we
dress, speak, behave, and feel communicates this truth to the outer
community. Speci fically, our words and actions contribute to the image of
the organisation.
Therefore, it is essential to assess what employees, stakeholders, and the
media say about the organisation. This process must be influenced if we are
to safeguard and enhance the reputation of our organisation, of which image
is only one piece. The two most significant groups in reputation
management are employees and consumers. Figure.1 illustrates how the
complicated relationship between the internal view (workers) and outward
view (customers) impacts the organisational performance. Identity and
image are the most significant aspects of a company's reputation, and they
should be related in a logical manner. For instance, if a pharmaceutical
company views itself as the market leade r in the discovery and supply of
antiretrovirals for the treatment of HIV/AIDS and its customers view it as a
competent supplier of medicine, there is congruence between identity and
image. In turn, this reinforces the brand.
This healthy link between iden tity and image is the purpose of reputation
management. In a period of continuous downsizing, reorganisation, and
competition, one method to achieve this goal is to focus on the values we
should uphold and the measures we can take to foster employee loyalt y. We
should also reconsider how we speak about our organisation and its
contributions to the community. This procedure requires the participation
of all employees. With the demise of large corporations such as Enron as a
result of fraudulent practices and the exploitation of Pick 'n Pay South
Africa through the alleged poisoning of certain merchandise, it has become
evident that the human resources department's role in corporate governance
has exploded with human capital management strategies.
This positio n was not previously a priority for HR professionals, but it is
now necessary for maintaining corporate reputation. This chapter focuses
on the definition of reputational risk, its significance, its origins, and the
role of HRM in reputation management. Th e formulation of plans for a
reputation management programme, crisis management, communicating
during a crisis, and handling office emergencies are covered. Examining the
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116 management. In add ition, the influence of ethics on reputation management
and the implementation of a whistle -blowing policy are examined.
10.2 REPUTATIONAL RI SK
Progressive businesses have realised that their reputation is an asset that
must be handled proactively. These b usinesses have realised that the
scrutiny under which businesses operate today and the amount of
information in the hands of consumers and the general public make
reputation a critical asset, and in some industries, the most essential asset.
What does a st akeholder think when he or she sees a company's secrets
exposed on an investigative journalism programme such as "Carte
Blanche," "60 Minutes," or "World in Action"? Recent occurrences reported
in the media demonstrate unequivocally the need for formalised reputation
management. Consider the following headlines:
x "The Northwest Government is delayed with its accounting"
x "CEO indicted for allegedly stealing $600 million from Tyco"
x "Can no one here operate a railroad?"
x 'Company fund derails'
The issue is obvious: Companies require programmes and procedures that
enable them to manage their reputations proactively; after all, their stock
price and position in the community depend on it. The purpose of reputation
management consulting is to: maintain a pos itive reputation in the
workplace and marketplace; enhance and build the organization's good
name and reputation; establish acceptable practises, policies, procedures,
systems, and standards that will prevent damage to the organization's
reputation; establ ish guidelines for dealing with situations in which the
company's reputation has been damaged; and prepare and equip the
management team.
Nothing is more essential to a company's success than its reputation.
Without a good reputation, a company's performan ce is restricted, and its
long-term future is uncertain. According to the second King Report on
Corporate Governance (King 2), "reputation is a function of stakeholder
perception of a company's integrity and efficiency, which is derived from a
variety of s ources, including customer service, employee relations, ethical
conduct, and environmental practices."
Therefore, while strong corporate governance should balance the interests
of society and the enterprise, it is also in the company's best interest. It is
extremely surprising that King 2 has gained South Africa international
reputation in this advanced subject. The committee chair, Mervyn King,
was chosen president of the Commonwealth Association for Corporate
Governance (CACG), which issued rules for fift y-six commonwealth
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117 Reputation Management Sir Adrian Cadbury, the author of the original British Corporate
Governance Report, has praised King 2 as being of the greatest calibre.
"Corporate governance is applicable to all businesses, but it must be
acknowledged that t iny businesses cannot comply from a financial
standpoint."
'As for unlisted companies as a category, some of them are larger than a
number of public companies, and corporate governance applies to them just
as it does to listed companies,' adds King. Respon sibility to all stakeholders,
including employees, suppliers, contractors, and everyone else with a
genuine stake in the success of a corporation, is at the heart of corporate
governance. The aspect of risk comprises employee health and
environmental conce rns. In South Africa, the management of HIV/AIDS
through organisations has been emphasised. The inability to effectively
address this issue has severe consequences for the organisation, including
decreased productivity due to death, sick, and compassionate leave;
increased overhead costs such as health care and insurance; a reduction in
the available skills base; a shrinking consumer base and changes in
consumer spending; decreased profitability; and a decline in investor
confidence.
10.3 ORIGINS OF REPU TAT IONAL DANGER
There are numerous reputational risk sources. Managers require training in
maintaining and defending the reputation of their organisation. HR
Professionals can only take this responsibility as part of their position once
the causes or sources of risk have been identified. The following examples
show several of these reputational risk factors:
Increasing visibility through the expansion of the Internet
Bernstein (2002a) predicted: "The usage of internet technologies for crisis
prevention and man agement will skyrocket." Since then, an unknown
assailant has hacked and defaced a number of South African corporate
websites, and countless individuals and businesses, including ABSA Bank,
have suffered repeated cyber -attacks.
The website www.sundaytimes. co.za contains additional information
regarding these incidents. Numerous more articles discuss the heightened
risk to a company's reputation when its name is sullied in cyberspace.
Reuters reported on 13 November 2002 that the US House of
Representatives unanimously adopted a bill tripling federal expenditure on
a programme to expand computer security research.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Explain the importance and objectives of reputation management.
________________________________________ ____________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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118 Public Relations Theory and Practice
118 ________________________________________________________ ____
____________________________________________________________
2. Discuss sources of reputational risk.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. Discuss the role of the HRM department in reputation management.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
10.4 UNSOCIABLE AND IMPOLITE BEHAVIOUR
Due to the anticipated high number of submissions, applicants who have
not received a response from us by a specified deadline may consider their
applications unsuccessful. This type of statement may be interpreted by
prospective applicants as an indication t hat the organisation does not value
its employees. The individual may also predict that the same attitude
prevails toward current employees of the organisation.
The Human Resources department could rationalize the situation by citing
their workload. Nevert heless, a potential recruit may not comprehend or
care about the department's challenges. This stakeholder is concerned with
whether or not he or she will fit into the organization and whether or not his
or her requirements will be addressed. Other instanc es of impersonal and
unfriendly behavior include not returning customers' phone calls, automated
answering machines that guide consumers through a series of actions
without any personal interaction, refusal to apologize for mistakes, and
plain rudeness.
10.5 ACTING BELATEDLY
The Sunday Business Times says that the National Lottery, Uthingo, has
been severely criticised and has had to run a large Public Relations
campaign to counter unfavorable public opinion after it was revealed that
only 3% of total lotte ry ticket sales went to charity. The CEO, Huey Khosa,
was quoted as saying that the criticism stemmed from a misunderstanding
of the lottery distribution method.
A similar issue occurred a few years ago when the mineral water sector in
South Africa faced a crisis after assuming that consumers would
comprehend that their goods contained just trace amounts of e. coli germs.
They lacked the time and resources to communicate fully before the bubble
burst but were able to do so afterward (Sunday Times, "Lifestyl e," 2 May
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119 Reputation Management This teaches a truly clear lesson: Do not presume that stakeholders
understand the company concept and operations. Relevant and timely
information is essential for preventing misconceptions. It is not necessary
for rumours to be factual fo r them to be detrimental. Numerous
organisations have uncovered this long after rumours began to circulate.
Prior to becoming public knowledge, HR professionals must communicate,
monitor perceptions, and detect disinformation and rumours.
10.6 ADMINISTRATI ON OF CORPORATE
REPUTATION
Vulnerability audits are the foundation of a programme for reputation
management. The foundation of any company's reputation management
programme should be an in -depth organisational audit. Bernstein (2002)
suggests that vulnerab ility audits involve both legal and "Public Relations"
reviews of all existing employment regulations, as well as confidential
interviews at all organisational levels.
Recent examinations of vulnerabilities have uncovered the following:
Perceptions of raci al or sexual harassment and discrimination; employees
accused of wrongdoing on and off the job (sometimes accurately,
sometimes not); union actions and/or hostile attempts to unionise; blatant
violations of customer confidentiality around the workplace and in public
places; and damaging rumours — online and offline. The following
inquiries may be asked during a vulnerability audit:
x Do you believe discrimination or harassment exists in our
organisation?
x Do our staff genuinely comprehend this specific pol icy?
x If management believes that they do, how can we know?
x Do our employees believe that we practise what we preach in terms
of fostering a friendly rather than hostile environment?
Binneman (2002a) offers the following vulnerability audit guidelines:
x Investigate what stakeholders, such as employees, are saying about
your organisation.
x Conduct research on the actions you desire from employees (such as
the neutralisation of any negative comments about the company or
work), the methods that can be us ed to measure progress towards
projecting a positive company image, and the incentives that could be
used to assist employees in projecting a positive company image.
x Create a list of recommended actions for projecting a positive image
that may be distrib uted to each employee as part of an outreach and
training programme.
x Employees should be involved in the construction of such a list.
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120 This must be a process of selling the benefits to employees rather t han
simply directing them what to say; otherwise, it will be viewed as
management propaganda. Binneman (2002) proposes the following
additions to the previously described list:
x Relate only positive company -related stories or observations, both
internally and externally. This will prevent erroneous bad messages
from spreading.
x Relate information selectively in an attempt to defend it, encounters
with a client or any other individual should not be described in detail.
x Respond with a complimentary reply to each unfavourable statement
made about the company. Display your support for the organisation.
x Determine which organisational ideals you endorse and act
accordingly. Describe your values and those of your organisation.
x Discover and promote the littl e-known excellent activities in which
the company is engaged. Make it a priority to find these and to spread
the news about your company's positive attributes. Influencing what
employees say about an organisation can have a direct impact on its
market and workplace reputation.
x Human Resources' part in implementing a reputation auditing system
The HR department can coordinate or provide assistance with the
following:
x The implementation of the required documentation, recording,
reporting, and secure storage of data.
x The impl ementation of reputation monitoring.
x The presentation and coordination of pertinent training courses at
various organisational levels.
x The formation, participation, and direction of the company's
reputation committee meetings.
x Reporting to the CEO an d maintaining communication with the
individual in charge of reputation management.
x The coordination and execution of a biannual reputation compliance
audit of the company's reputation management programme to ensure
that all standards and regulations are met.
x The administration of a company's reputation amid a crisis.
Binneman (2002b) explains in detail why an unavoidable crisis should be
prepared for:
x Assets, markets, and reputations can be saved by surviving the first
two hours of a catastrophe or t ragedy.
x Poor crisis management can kill careers. Both the Ford/Bridgestone
tyre recall and the 1999 poisoning of Coca -Cola in Europe resulted in
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121 Reputation Management x The perception of how a crisis is managed will be determined by the
expectations of outsiders and diverse stakeholders.
x Managing a crisis insensitively or not at all can exacerbate its
visibility, expense, and reputational harm. (Perform an Internet search
for Dow -response Corning's to the brea st implant catastrophe.)
x The timing of communication has a lasting impact on the
organization's reputation, even after the crisis has subsided. If an
organisation values its reputation and wants to maintain its credibility,
then preparations for crisis m anagement are an absolute must.
x There are audiences, including the company's employees, who have
elevated expectations for management's problem -solving skills when
terrible news occurs. Every interested party will concentrate on the
organization's answer .
x Every perceived action or phrase will contribute to the reputation of
the organisation. An emergency response and communication
strategy When a corporation faces a crisis, such as when Pick 'n Pay
was threatened by an extortionist, it must be prepared to cope with the
reality and the impressions that emerge during the crisis. After the
Pick 'n Pay scandal, forensic tests found that no products were
actually tainted with poison.
x Planning and foresight are crucial. No business can afford the cost of
complacency. The solution is to plan and react. A crisis response and
communication plan are a blueprint of the processes and actions that
must be implemented based on the type of crisis facing the
organisation.
10.7 BUILDING A CRIS IS RESPONSE AND
COMMUNICATI ON STRATEGY:
The initial stage in effective crisis management is to develop a well -
considered strategy for handling crises. At best, the plan will avert the
emergence of a crisis; at worst, it will provide clear recommendations for
how to respond, manage, and act when things become urgent or chaotic.
x Listed below are guidelines for developing such a strategy:
x Form a crisis squad.
x Establish a communications structure to guarantee that the
appropriate individuals are informed when a crisis occurs.
x Ensure that the crisis team, top management, and workforce are well -
versed in recognising a crisis and are aware of who to contact when
one occurs.
x Brainstorm various situations. These may include an act of violence
in the workplace, an accident, tainted pr oducts, customer
dissatisfaction, customer harm as a result of using the company's
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122 x Develop effective communication and reaction strategies for each of
the fabricated crisis scenarios. Consider the organization's stated
values as a guide.
x Compile a list of actions and steps pertinent to each potential
catastrophe.
x Ensure that all pertinent sources are instantly accessible or known.
x Document your list of contacts, policies, tactics, potentia l crises,
communications, and recommended actions.
x Practice .
Obtain expert assistance. The 'Domino Theory' is utilized by health and
safety professionals to demonstrate how an accident occurs. Reputational
Risk Managers can apply the same principles to t he workplace risk
management process. Dominos is a game in which little rectangular blocks
are lined up and the first brick is pushed over to cause a snowball effect that
pushes over the remaining blocks sequentially. Regarding risk management,
the Domino Theory can be regarded as follows:
the first domino is the failure to actively build and protect the company's
reputation; the second domino is a potentially harmful act or piece of
information; the third domino is the inability to identify and act upon su ch
a potentially harmful act or behaviour; the fourth domino is the spread of
harmful information about the company; the fifth domino is a damaged
company reputation; and without intervention, this can result in the
company's demise. Lack of management con trol, the most significant
domino, is the domino that initiates the entire process.
In response to a crisis: Frequently, organisations are prepared to handle the
practical aspects of a crisis, such as calling the fire brigade or evacuating
the building, wh ile ignoring the larger communication requirements. There
are numerous audiences that could be touched by the crisis, and each will
want to hear the facts as soon as possible; in the absence of such
information, members of each audience will begin to overr eact or panic.
Clients/patients/customers, the media, employees, investors, community
leaders, and regulatory bodies are typical target audiences. Each requires a
distinct mode of communication (such as a phone call, fax, letter, press
release, or web post ing) and has distinct information requirements.
Confusion and loss are reduced if an organisation is prepared in advance to
respond quickly to these needs. Bernstein (2002) offers the ten steps listed
below for crisis communication.
x Identify your team of crisis communicators.
x Identify spokespersons.
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123 Reputation Management x Determine your stakeholder groups and their unique communication
requirements.
x Anticipate crises.
x Evaluate the emergency situatio n.
x Identify key messages.
x Choose communication techniques and channels.
x Weather the storm
x The following are guidelines for responding appropriately to a crisis:
x Stay calm.
x Acquire all the facts.
x Prioritise.
x Appear and confront the crisis. D o not attempt to conceal.
x Maintain an open dialogue with the media and be truthful, forthright,
and factual.
x Communicate constantly.
x Be human, considerate, and compassionate.
x If necessary, get legal counsel, but do not become a lawyer.
x Provide th e crisis management team with the capability to effectively
manage the event from start to finish.
Utilizing the Internet to dispel rumours: In the first few hours after a rumour
or calamity strikes your firm, a particular perception can be formed. In the
past, the news media (newspapers and television) determined public
opinion.
Today, a single message published by an unknown and relatively small
individual on the appropriate Internet discussion board can wreak havoc on
a company's carefully cultivated bra nd. The Internet has the power to build
or break a business, as it enables instantaneous publication and rapid
dissemination of information. Like a virus, 'local' issues can now swiftly
become 'global' ones and spread to the mainstream media. This is illus trated
by the fact that the Bill Clinton –Monica Lewinsky scandal initially broke
on the Internet.
Journalists today rely on the Internet as their primary source of news, and
most organisations' websites are often visited by them. Another element
adding to the Internet's influence is that, unlike newspapers, which are
typically thrown after a period of time, the Internet is more permanent. With
the ability to disseminate news nearly quickly, the media day has been
replaced by the media hour, and most shortly the media minute.
In a crisis, the available turnaround time is severely decreased, and
lightning -fast action will be required to safeguard the organization's
reputation. A crisis is only a crisis if it becomes public; prior to that, it is
merely a busine ss concern. However, the trick to crisis management is not
to have one. Therefore, some of the most effective reputational defensive
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124 Public Relations Theory and Practice
124 10.8 THE ESTABLISHME NT OF AN EARLY WARNI NG
SYSTEM:
Continuous monitoring is crucial to i dentify hostile communications,
hostile cyber radio messages, and hate sites as soon as possible so that
misperceptions and incorrect assertions can be addressed before irreparable
harm is caused. Participate in newsgroups, forums, bulletin boards, etc., t o
correct misquoted, incorrectly excerpted, or manufactured information.
Ongoing monitoring: Crisis avoidance continues to be monitored. Monitor
major sources of information, rumours, and conversations regarding your
organisation, its goods, services, stak eholders, and workers, as well as
journalists and others who utilise these sites for stories.
Monitor concerns to foresee impending crises and spread correct, up -to-date
information via the web and other Internet channels. Determine, monitor,
and rectify m isperceptions, rumours, and false messages.
Act persistently: The Internet can serve as your first line of defence, and
herein lies a crucial clue: it enables you to talk directly to your target
audience and stakeholders without media filtration. Multiple technologies,
including email, SMS, and group bulk mailers, may be utilised. This also
suggests that the company's website should be updated frequently and be
created with the user in mind.
10.9 A PLAN FOR OFFI CE EMERGENCIES
A worst -case scenario based on potential hazards within the working
environment, realistic security risks, and possible natural disasters should
be considered when developing a thorough office emergency plan. The
following checklist demonstrates effective emergency planning for the
work place.
These responsibilities are frequently attributed to the HR department:
Identify important personnel for the Emergency Response Team. Maintain
a well -stocked first aid kit. Conduct an inventory of existing emergency
supplies, equipment, and data.
Plan for the provision of emergency supplies in the event of an emergency
that requires 72 -hour building confinement.
Examine what training is required for critical safety professionals, and then
spread emergency training to the entire workforce. Examine the company's
facilities to see what could pose a problem during an emergency.
10.10 ETHICS IN BUSINESS AND WHISTLEBLOWING
Corporate ethics and reputational risk management are inseparable, as a
damaged reputation is frequently the result of what is believed t o be
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125 Reputation Management effectively proved the significance of ethics have connected ethics to
genuine business concerns and processes.
Ethics is the study of moral principles or ideals that define good and
improper conduct or acts. Although most people have a general
understanding of what is and is not considered ethical, there are numerous
grey areas that could potentially lead to conflict (Schultz et al. 2003:29).
Ethics pertains to the size of th e gap between actual corporate culture
(enacted beliefs and behaviour) and the behaviours a firm must display to
meet market compliance standards (desired values and behaviours).
Human Resources play a crucial part in the ethics programme of any
organisati on. In a company where management and employees perceive the
ethics programme as insignificant, the HR department's job becomes even
more crucial. Human resource experts are in a position to assess the cost of
employee turnover caused by a lack of individu al respect, harassment, and
discrimination.
HR is able to determine whether employees are rewarded for actions that
contradict the company's principles and whether those who attempt to do
the right thing are protected or persecuted. The manner in which HR
addresses ethical concerns frequently impacts whether an organization's
ethics programme is considered seriously. Schultz et al. (2003:30) offer the
following recommendations for developing an ethical culture:
x Create an exhaustive code of ethics for all involved parties (managers,
employee groups, human resources management, salespeople,
accountants, sup pliers, customers, society in general, etc.).
x The code should emphasise specific unethical actions (such as
accepting bribes, altering facts or data, concealing information,
violating confidentiality, etc.).
x The code should be disseminated to all pertinent parties.
x The code should be constantly enforced through incentives for
compliance and sanctions for noncompliance.
x Executive leadership and other role models should demonstrate
outstanding behaviour.
x Provide education on ethical problems.
x Provide means for addressing ethical concerns, including surveys,
audits, confidential reporting procedures, an d whistle -blower
protection systems.
10.11 DEVELOPING A POLICY FOR REPORTING
MISCONDUCT
Employees are frequently the first to discover unethical, immoral, or
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126 Public Relations Theory and Practice
126 to be the last to speak up for fear of losing their job, receiving criticism from
their peers, or forfeiting the opportunity for advancement.
Sherron Watkins has become a metaphor for blowing the whistle after
exposing unethical behaviour at Enron, which ultimately brought the
business to its knees.
Watkins penned a seven -page document to CEO Kenneth Lay citing a
variety of causes for concern within the organisation. Five months later,
when everything became known, she even testified against him in front of
a grand jury.
A code of conduct for whistle -blowing A whistle -blowing code of ethics
establishes standards for the whistle -blower when reporting a problem and
for management when addressing the problem. Following are some criteria
concerning the whistle -blower:
ascertain that th e issue stems from appropriate moral motivations of
preventing needless harm to others; ensure that the failure of whistle -
blowing could lead to grave danger; use all available internal procedures for
rectifying the issue before public disclosure, although special circumstances
may preclude this requirement; evidence that 'would persuade a reasonable
person' should be provided; act in accordance with existing responsibilities
for 'avoidance of harm' General whistleblowing principles for management
include: Involve employees and listen to their sense of right and wrong.
Explain what fraud is and its impact on the organisation, their jobs, and the
company's reputation; discuss other forms of malpractice that could
seriously harm the organisation; when finding malpractice, deal with it
openly and transparently; make it clear that the organisation is committed
to tackling fraud and abuse, whether the perpetrators are internal or external;
ensure that employees are aware of what practises are unacceptable (for
example, receiving gifts).
Encourage them to ask management for clarification and to actively seek
information; and have staff unions back and promote this approach.
These are guidelines for addressing a particular issue:
Management should be open to a conc ern before it becomes part of a
grievance and should not let its lack of action or inaction become a
grievance; remember that there are two sides to every issue; respect and
heed legitimate employee concerns about their own safety or career; stress
to both management and staff that victimising employees or discouraging
them from raising a concern about malpractice is a disciplinary offence;
make it clear that such behaviour are not tolerated.
Let’s Sum It Up/Key Points
x Since reputation is organic and alw ays changing, it needs to be
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127 Reputation Management x The best reputations are regularly held by companies with close
stakeholder relationships. Additionally, they have policies and
practises that offer these stakeholders —including employees , clients,
shareholders, regulators, and suppliers —ongoing, reciprocal
advantages.
x Organizations with a good reputation value effective internal and
external communication.
x They are ready to listen and modify their methods.
x Their CEOs act as the prim ary spokespersons for the company, and
their communications staff takes part in important decision -making.
x These companies take a "long view" when making decisions because
they understand the value of their reputations beyond just leveraging
financial pe rformance.
x Reputation management is one of the most crucial facets of an
organization's operations, and it is not only the purview of a select
few.
x Companies with poor leadership, limited involvement from
stakeholders, and unethical behaviour will undo ubtedly have a
negative reputation.
x Despite the fact that many of these businesses currently have strong
financial results, if they neglect reputational difficulties, their
operating costs will increase.
x For a while, consistently bad communication migh t be able to mask
managerial inefficiencies, but market performance will definitely
expose any lies.
x The chapter discusses two viable approaches and urges their usage,
despite controversy over the technique and reputation measuring's
relative immaturity in certain nations.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Recommend guidelines for management to act appropriately during a
crisis.
_________ ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________ ___________________________________
2. Propose a plan for dealing with an office emergency.
_________ ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
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128 Public Relations Theory and Practice
128 3. Recommend a communication strategy to be used during a cr isis.
_________ ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________ ___________________________________
4. Discuss the impact of ethics on organisational reputation.
_________ ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________ ___________________________________
5. Discuss the management of ethics in the workplace.
_________ ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________ ___________________________________
REFERENCES:
“Chapter 13 Reputation Management; Corporate Image and
Communication.” Bournemouth University Research Online ,
http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/12633/2/Chapter_13_def.pdf. Accessed
22 September 2022.
Forsey, Caroli ne. “Reputation Management: How to Protect Your Brand
Online in 2021.” HubSpot Blog , 26 May 2021,
https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/reputation -management. Accessed 22
September 2022.
“Reputation Management - Continuing Professional Development.” UWE
Brist ol, 9 August 2022, https://courses.uwe.ac.uk/Z51000173/reputation -
management. Accessed 22 September 2022.
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129 11
UNDERSTANDING EVOLUTION OF MASS
MEDIA AND MASS COMMUNICATION
WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO INDIA
Unit Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Methods of early communication: Cave paintings, oral
communication
11.3 Introduction to written communication
11.3.1 Phases in written text
11.4 Invention and evolution of the Mass mediums
11.4.1 Printing press
11.4.2 Telegraph
11.4.3 Radio
11.4.4 Television
11.4.5 Cinema
11.5 Mass Media and mass communication in India
11.5.1 Printing press and the freedom struggle
11.5.2 History of Radio in India: Introduction, community
development
11.5.3 Television in India
11.5.4 Cinema in India
11.6 Mass media and Development Communication in India
11.6.1 Key Initiative of Mass Communication in India
11.6.2 Radio: Radio Rural forums, Sangam Radio, Gyaan Vaani, Print
media: Village Chhatera
11.7 Let’s Sum It Up
11.8 Questions
11.9 References
11.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you wi ll be able to:
Describe the methods of early communication
Understand the importance of written communication munotes.in

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130 Public Relations Theory and Practice
130 Categorize different inventions of different mass mediums and the changes
they bought to the Indian society.
Analyze the use of mass media for dev elopmental communication
Jot down key mass communication Initiatives in India
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Societies throughout the history of civilization have felt the need to
communicate. The need for communication arose from the facts of sharing
an opinion and passing knowledge of heritage and even culture to new
members of the society. Human beings are creative by nature, which gives
birth to various ideas; these ideas are what one wants to share with others.
Being a social animal, communication is also a need, just like food,
clothing, and shelter. In this unit, we will learn how communication evolved
throughout human civilization. We will also dig deeper into how it evolved,
particularly in India and how it shaped people's culture and language and
ideas. Human communication didn't simply start with letters or words
themselves. The first step toward mass communication was through
drawings on the walls of the caves. This happened around 25,000 years ago,
and to date, cave paintings are the oldest known records of human
communication. The story of communication and its evolution continues
even today; just because we see several languages does not mean that
communication has stopped evolving. Today we are not looking at
communication just in terms of language. We ar e trying to understand how
communication is used in advertising in Public Relations in developmental
communication. It has come a long way from cave paintings today; we are
trying to see how scientific communication has evolved and how it impacts
society. The word "communication" is descended from the Latin noun
communication, which means sharing or imparting.
11.2 METHODS OF EARLY C OMMUNICATIONS
Cave paintings: Long before any language was invented, ancient cave
paintings were the most primitive form of co mmunication. Our ancestors
used pigments created from fruits or minerals to depict the daily life on
walls of these caves. Paintings depicted hunting, social life (handprints of
every clan member on the walls), drawing of tools etc. Scholars concluded
that the sole reason for these paintings was to communicate with the next
generation and pass on the instructions as to what was safe to hunt/eat and
the tools to use.
Oral communication: Oral communication plays a key role in Asian
cultures through oral comm unication cultures that pass on various cultural
standards, traditions, and knowledge to the next generation. The best
example of verbal communication in India is the Vedas. The Vedic oral
tradition" is a broad rubric for traditions of recitation and ritua l connected
to India's oldest Sanskrit texts, the Vedas, which were orally composed,
compiled, and codified during the late second millennium and early 1st
millennium BCE. From that time into the early 21st century, the Vedas have munotes.in

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131 Understanding Evolution of Mass Media and Mass
Communication With
Specific Reference to India been orally transmitted w ith great fidelity within certain orthodox
communities of Brahmins, members of India's priestly caste, whose social
status is founded on their role as transmitters and interpreters of this sacred
"knowledge" (Veda).
11.3 INTRODUCTION TO WR ITTEN
COMMUNICATI ON
Although alphabets developed around the world over five thousand years
ago, alphabets like hieroglyphics changed the way cultures communicated,
still written communication remained ambiguous. The Greeks and the
Romans resolved the issue by assigning a s yllable with alphabets sounds,
thus making it easier to pen down and read. But still, since there was no
material to pen this down and circulate among the masses, written language
was still inefficient. Eventually, China perfected the paper -making process
and shared it with other regions via the trade -routes. The seeds of mass
communication's future were sown. This particular milestone changed the
way cultures transmitted knowledge, traditions and values. This paved the
way for written communication to be p ossible. Individuals who couldn't
access the paper used vellum to write on, which was made from calfskin.
Written languages started with the development of alphabets worldwide
over five thousand years ago. This developed into ideogrammatic alphabets,
(picture based) that are like hieroglyphics changed the way culture
communicated. But written communication was still confusing and could
not reach the masses until Greeks and Romans solved this. They established
a syllable alphabet representing sounds. However , it was still inefficient
because written language was inefficient without something to write on.
11.3.1 Phases in written texts
Once languages were established, the majority of the texts around the 7th -
13th century were religious in nature written by scholars. During this time
writing and reading was prevalent among the wealthy people. Post 13th
century, books promoting secular thoughts and knowledge became famous.
This was because of the rise of universities in various parts of the world.
The majority of the books were handwritten or printed with woodblocks,
made from mulberry wood.
11.4 INVENTION AND EVOL UTION OF THE MASS
MEDIUMS
11.4.1 The printing press
Johannes Gutenberg, born in Germany invented the first printing system, he
revolutionized the way s books were written/printed. He developed the metal
movable types that had screws, presses, and other existing technologies of
that time to create a printing press. This method used ink and paper, allowed
for books to be mass produced, and lowered the cos t. Slowing the printing
press spread from Germany to other parts of the countries. This stressed
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132 authorities —this insecurity brought with itself lots of regulations and rules
on the printing press. The printing press made written communication
available to the masses, it also gave voice to the people. It was one of the
most significant inventions in human history. He is believed to have created
an oil -based ink that could be made thick enough to adhere well to metal
type and transfer well to vellum or paper, a metal alloy that could melt easily
and cool quickly to form durable reusable type, and a new press for applying
firm, even pressure to printing surfaces that was likely modi fied from
presses used to make wine, oil, or paper. The letter -stamping method
employed in Europe at the time lacked all of these characteristics, as did
woodblock printing. By making books widely available, the printing press
sparked an "information revol ution" and is seen as a key historical
milestone.
11.4.2 Telegraph
Although written communication was seen as a much -advanced way of
communicating during early times soon, there was a need to communicate
much quicker and across geographical boundaries. Thi s need gave birth to
the invention of the Telegraph. William Watson invented the Telegraph it
was used to send messages in 1747. This invention allowed for quicker
communication across long distances, something not available previously.
This piece of the m edium was invented particularly for war as it helps
transmit valuable information through long distances. Since Telegraph
transmitted information via wires, telegraph stations had to be set up along
the railroads, where poles had to be erected. However, th is technology was
not available to the lower classes of society due to the cost involved. This
invention further gave birth to the idea of the telephone, but the telephone
didn't become that famous due to the higher cost needed for the instruments.
Also, s ince this technology was not much different from the Telegraph, it
also required wires to transmit messages.
11.4.3 Radio
The invention of Radio was the first step toward wireless communication.
It all started with discovering radio waves and their capacit y to transmit
speeches, music, and other data invisibly through the air. The Radio played
a massive role in India's community development and education. The
invention of the Radio is credited to Guglielmo Marconi. As a young man
Marconi read the biography or Heinrich Hertz, who had written on wireless
transmission. Marconi duplicated the experiment and was successful in
sending transmissions from one side of the attic to the other. The invention
was first used by naval ships to communicate with other ships. But soon, its
potential as a mass medium was realized.
11.4.4 Television
During the Second World War, the Radio's popularity skyrocketed as
televisions were not equipped to provide accurate and timely news, but that
began to change in the 40s. Television became commercially available for
the masses in late 30s, and it started becoming a standard household
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Specific Reference to India entertainment and news. In 1926, Scottish television pioneer John Baird
(1888 -1946) demo nstrated the first television system.
11.4.5 Cinema
The word cinema has its roots in the lasting spelling of the Greek work
Kinema, meaning motion. The related words for cinema are celluloid, film,
movie house, and movie theatre. The invention of cinema is not credited to
a single person. In 1891, the Edison company successfully demonstrated a
prototype of the Kinetoscope that enabled a person to view moving pictures.
This was an immediate success. The first to present projected moving
pictures were the L umière brothers in 1895 in Paris, France. They had used
their device called as Cinematographe. These films lasted for a few minutes
or less and didn't have synchronized dialogues.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Explain the early forms of Communication
_______________ _____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ ________________
When did printing press for pu blic began? What was the impact?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________ _________________
11.5 MASS MEDIA AND MAS S COMMUNICATION IN
INDIA
11.5.1 Printing press: The first -ever Printing press was established in
Mumbai (Bombay); the second happened to be in Madras and the third in
Kolkata. The Britishers were responsible for bringing the printing press to
India. In India, the first newspaper was introduced by James Augustus
Hicky. It was a commercial paper that was open to everyone to subscribe
to, and it did not favour any particular sect of the society. The newspaper
included mostly gossip and rumours and exposed people's private lives at
high places. James August us Hicky's Bengal gazette didn't do much in terms
of education or awareness, but it started the trend of using newspapers to
inform the masses in India. This medium proved to be most helpful in
India's freedom struggle as several papers that were fighting for India's
freedom struggle communicated their ideas via newspapers. Newspapers
that actively participated in India's freedom struggle were Vande Mataram,
Kesari, Maratha, Amrita Bazaar Patrika, and National Herald. These
newspapers had a tough time durin g the British era in India as they faced
many ruthless laws and regulations. But it didn't suppress the growth and
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134 11.5.2 Radio in India
Introduction
The radio spectrum that we know today is a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum. It has frequencies from 30 Hz to 300 GHz, and electromagnetic
waves in this range are called as radio waves. It is widely used in modern
technology, particularly telecommunication, to prevent interference and
disturbance between u sers. The generation and transmission of radio waves
are regulated by laws, which is coordinated by an international body.
The set -up of a private radio station in Chennai in 1924 marks the beginning
of the history of radio broadcasting in India. It was fo llowed by setting up
broadcasting services in India that started in June 1927 on an experimental
basis in Bombay and Calcutta at the same time. However, the responsible
company (Indian Broadcasting company limited) for setting up these radio
stations in In dia faced liquidation three years later. Since the company went
bankrupt, this called for the Indian government to take charge of the
broadcasting in India. The state began its broadcasting operations under the
new name of the Indian State Broadcasting Cor poration. For convenience
purposes and because Indian could not pronounce such a difficult name,
Lionel Fielden radio's first controller changed its name to All India Radio
in 1936. Later on, in 1957, it came to be known as Akashvani, and was
managed by th e Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
Community development
Radio in India was an essential means of mass communication due to certain
key characteristics of Radio as a medium. The state provided radio
transmitters in the start to various communiti es to keep them updated with
the different government policies and changes. The government started with
the community radio programs to connect with the people living cut off
from the city life and in remote areas: community stations or graphic
communities and communities of interest. The community radio content is
relevant to local audiences and is overlooked by mass -media broadcasters.
Search radio stations are operated on and influenced by communities
themselves; it provides an opportunity to represent p eople from different
ethnic, social, and religious backgrounds and gender.
11.5.3 Television in India
Television came to India on 15th September 1959 as an experiment in Delhi,
the first experimental transmission using a cheap transmitter and a
makeshift s tudio got things started for Indian terrestrial television. The first
All India Radio daily broadcasts aired in 1965. (AIR). Later, in 1972,
television service was introduced in Amritsar and Bombay (now known as
Mumbai). Before 1975, there were just seven cities in India with television
service. Through the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment, India
made a tremendous advancement in the use of television for development
(SITE). A section of the AIR at the time, Doordarshan (DD), produced the
majori ty of the shows. The programme was shown twice daily, in the
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Specific Reference to India important topics were health and family planning. It started with offering a
two-hour programme for a week. Initially, the prog rammes were for school
children and farmers. Under SITE, the Indian government used the
American satellite to broadcast educational programmes to the Indian
villages. Later in 1982, Doordarshan telecasted the 9th Asian Games using
INSAT 1 Satellite.
The i ntroduction of communication channels was a huge step in bringing in
the private channels in our country. Private channels started in India in the
1990s post CNNs broadcasting of the gulf war. Hong Kong based STAR
TV entered India while Zee Tv was born.
11.5.4 Cinema in India
In India, cinema started with short films production. Director Hiralal Sen
directed the first short film in India named The Flower of Persia in the year
1898. The very well -known Dadasaheb Phalke produced the first full -length
motion p icture in India. Phalke's stories were derived from the Sanskrit epic.
The name of the motion picture was Raja Harish Chandra; produced in the
year 1913 and was a silent film. Soon after sound could be synced with the
actors' actions, the film companies ha d to invest in newer equipment to
allow the functioning of this innovative technology. The first Indian talking
film was Alam Ara, by Adeshir Irani, released in the year 1931. With further
development in sound technology, movies soon started incorporating
musicals in the cinema. India got its first colour film Kissan Kanya in 1937,
and it was the first Hindi feature film directed by Moti B. Gidwani. There
are several language film businesses in Indian cinema. Tamil and Telugu
film industries each contribute d 13% of 2019 box office receipts, with the
Hindi film business finishing in second with 44%. Bengali, Marathi, Odia,
Punjabi, Gujarati, and Bhojpuri are further important languages. Kannada
and Malayalam each contribute 5% to the sector. The aggregate inc ome of
all other film industries will surpass that of the Hindi film industry by 2020.
Indian film is a multi -billion -dollar industry with a considerable following
in South Asia and more than 90 other nations. Indian movies, which provide
12% of the indust ry's income, are beloved by millions of Indians living
abroad.
11.6 MASS MEDIA AND DEV ELOPMENT
COMMUNICATION IN IND IA
Mass media is not just a medium for entertainment, but it is also a medium
for information and education. Ever since the introduction of m ass media
into our country, India has given utmost importance to the idea of education
and information dissemination. Since the Britishers were thrown out of this
country it was left up to the Indians to build our society. It was left up to
our leaders to propel the economy and the society forward. But this could
not be done just with the help of a few leaders; the community needed to
participate in the growth process as well. This required for the masses to be
educated to be literate and if not, literate b e able to understand government
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136 Development communication goes beyond providing just the information.
It helps people understand the values and beliefs of social and cultural
norms. T he government started using media on two levels; the first level,
mass media often used television radio and print media in campaigns to
induce adoption of innovation or other changes in behaviour. The second
was community media. Through the use of Radio a nd other folk
expressions, it gave the communities a platform to voice their opinions and
discuss issues.
The development of communication in India started with the Radio. There
were radios with different languages that would discuss agriculture,
farming, and other related subjects for different regions. Even with the
advent of television in India, through Doordarshan India was concentrating
only on programs on agriculture; many of you might have seen the Krishi
Darshan program on Doordarshan. Print media p layed a great part in
developmental communication after independence when India adopted the
five-year plan strategy. Through print media, various themes of these plans
were constantly discussed in everyday newspaper.
11.6.1 Key features of developmental co mmunication
It is aimed at the socio -economic development of the community
It is more than just entertainment, it focuses on education and information
It emphasizes participatory communication
It believes in two -way communication
11.6.2 Few key Initiatives of Development Communication in India
Radio Rural Forums
In 1956, UNESCO selected India for the Radio Rural Forums Project
experiment. Pune was the first site for this experiment. Under this
experiment village, radio forums were created and made to listen to radio
programs broadcasted by the AIR and then discuss the content of the
program; the theme of the experiment was to 'listen, discuss and act'. The
outcome of this experiment was that the forums helped unify the villages
around common decisions and ac ts.
Sangam Radio
Pastapur village in the Sangareddy district, Telangana, runs a community
radio. The speciality of this community radio is that it is run by women and
discusses issues related to women and society. This village is at a distance
of 110 km fr om Hyderabad. The Deccan development society took up this
initiative.
Gyan Vani Radio
Gyan Vani is an FM band radio station broadcasting educational
programmes in several cities of India. It contains content pertaining to
primary and secondary education, adult education, and technical and
vocational education. The Gyan Vani FM radio was started in 2001 as a
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137 Understanding Evolution of Mass Media and Mass
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Specific Reference to India Print Media - Project Village Chhatera
The initiative was taken by Hindustan Times. The newspaper regularly
wrote fortnightly columns describing the people's lives and their
expectations from the Panchayat; they also attached photographs as fruits.
They helped people voice their demands of electricity and water supply
deficit rainfall. Since the problem was getti ng printed in a newspaper and
was getting circulated it attracted attention of the authorities and many of
the problems that these villagers were facing with water were solved. The
coverage given by the media brought machine bridges, roads, and banks
into the.
11.7 LET’S SUM IT UP
This unit gives a holistic view of the history of mass communication
throughout the world and in India. We have come a long way from writing
on Cave walls for communication to the digital form of media in terms of
communication. S o much so that today we think of communication in terms
of community development, education, and information. Whenever every
kind of mass medium was introduced in the country from time to time it
was widely accepted and put to better use. As a country, we had a lot to
learn about nutrition, farming, policies, and other cultures. India made the
best use of the mediums by providing people with this information. Shows
like Krishi Darshan and initiatives like rural radio forums changed how
people viewed their d aily lives. The mass media's journey in India has been
majorly that of developmental communication.
11.8 QUESTIONS
1. _____ invented the telegraph, it was used to send messages in 1747.
A. William Watson
B. Marconi
C. Marshall McLuhan
D. Edison
2. The first to present projected moving pictures were the _____in 1895,
in Paris, France.
A. Dadasaheb Phalke
B. Lumière brothers
C. Adeshir Irani
D. Satyajit Ray
3. Describe the methods of early communication? Answer in four -five
sentences
4. What is the history of Radio in India? Explain its evolution?
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138 11.9 REFERENCES
Basuroy, Tanushree. “India - box office distribution by language 2019.”
Statista , 14 February 2020,
https://www.statista.c om/statistics/948615/india -regional -box-office -
contribution -by-language/. Accessed 22 September 2022.
“India Box Office collections: Regional cinema led by Telugu; Tamil
movies overtakes Bollywood.” The Financial Express , 11 July 2020,
https://www.financia lexpress.com/entertainment/bollywoods -big-but-
regional -cinema -is-also-raking -in-the-moolah/2020134/. Accessed 22
September 2022.
Kumar, Keval J. Mass Communication in India (4th Edition) . Jaico
Publishing House, 2000.
Lehmann, Hellmut E. “Johannes Gutenber g | Printing Press, Inventions,
Facts, Accomplishments, & Biography.” Encyclopedia Britannica , 26
August 2022, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes -Gutenberg.
Accessed 22 September 2022.
Sinha, Ashish. “Prasar Bharati looks at a turnaround.” The F inancial
Express , 19 July 2011, https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/prasar -
bharati -looks -at-a-turnaround/819379/. Accessed 22 September 2022.
7777777
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PRINT MEDIA IN INDIA
Unit Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 The history of the Press
12.2.1 Evolution of printing
12.3 History of the press in India
12.3.1 The issue of censorship
12.3.2 Acts and laws to silence the press
12.4 Pioneers of the press in India
12.5 Press afte r Independence
12.5.1 First Press Commission
12.5.2 Second Press Commission
12.6 Press Council of India - History
12.6.1 Functions of the PCI
12.7 Constitution and Freedom of Press
12.8 Press in India Today
12.9 Let’s Sum It Up
12.10 Questions
12.11 Referen ces
12.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit seeks to explain the history of printing and its distinct types. We
shall discuss what is the meaning of the word press and how it developed in
India. By the time you have read this unit, you will be able to
1. Describe how and when did the print media evolve around the world
2. Understand the evolution of printing
3. Articulate the struggle of the press in India during its inception
4. Examine the status of the media in India after Independence
5. Analyze the ideas and recom mendations made by two Press
Commissions in India
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140 Public Relations Theory and Practice
140 12.1 INTRODUCTION
The history of printing in India is a story of a struggle to freely communicate
with each other, to express opinions, thoughts, and ide as. As a media
student, one must be aware of the efforts to understand the value and
freedom to communicate that we enjoy today. In Indian print history, few
individuals like James Augusts Hicky, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and few key
freedom fighters were the pi oneers of newspapers in India. Their ideas will
be discussed at length in this unit.
12.2 THE HISTORY OF THE PRESS
In the last units, we studied that before printing was possible, information
usually would be either inscribed on the walls of temples or on copper
plates. In various parts of the world, announcements related to monarchy's
decision on any issue would be carried out by beating drums across the
village and announcing the same. But things change with the invention of
paper and the printing press. In an apparent chronology, the paper was
invented first by the Chinese, and it reached Europe in the 16th century. The
paper was made from the bark of a mulberry tree. The straws of the tree
were pressed into flat sheets and dried. After the invention of the moveable
cast metal type printing machines by Johannes Gutenberg, the whole
printing scene changed from thereon. The first attempt at the modern type
of newspaper was made in the year 1621; it was a primitive -looking news
sheet called Coranto in London . Although it was not regular in frequency,
it did set the need for more information on a daily basis. This gave birth to
'Diurnals', which were developed for daily reports of local news.
12.2.1 Evolution of printing
Woodblock Printing - 200 AD: As the nam e suggests, it involves carving
the writing material or design in the wood. Once carved the raised part is
inked and placed on top of the fabric/paper. The ink is transferred by
applying pressure to the paper. The remaining woodcuts can be used for
other d ecorative design purposes.
Movable type: This is similar to woodcut. Before woodcut, the whole
carving had to be done once on a single piece of wood. However, the
moveable type allowed individual letters to be placed differently wherever
needed to form a w ord. The moveable type was first made from clay; later,
wood and metal were introduced.
The first printing press: Gutenberg is responsible for the invention of the
media. This method was innovative but was built on the movable type of
technique. The very f irst book mass -produced by this technique was the
'The Gutenberg Bible' in 1455; around 180 copies were printed.
Etching : This involved making prints from a metal plate, either copper or
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141 Print Media in India Lithography : Lithography printing involves oil and water, whic h repel
each other. This technique uses flat stone or metal plates, and areas are
worked using a greasy substance so that the ink will stick to them, while the
non-image areas are made ink -repellent.
Offset Printing : This is the most famous type of printin g, despite being
developed almost 150 years ago. This technique transfers ink from a plate
to a rubber blanket and then to the printing space.
Inkjet printing: With inkjet printing, direct contact with the paper is no
longer required.
12.3 HISTORY OF PRESS IN INDIA
On a technical basis, the press means the machinery in which we print a
paper that becomes a journal, magazine, periodical, pamphlets, leaflets, or
a book. But sometimes, this term is also used for people that are journalists -
part of news ag encies, news syndicates and feature agencies form a part of
the term press. In India, newsletters are the earlier form of newspapers.
During the times of the Mughal period. These manuscripts were the sole
source of information about the changes and develop ments happening in the
kingdom. This practice continued until James Augustus Hickey started his
newspaper 'Bengal Gazette' in 1780. When the press was introduced in
India, it catered only to the interests of the ruling class during British rule.
The East I ndia company was always suspicious of the functioning of the
journalist and was intolerant to any criticism. Bengal Gazette or Calcutta
General Advertiser success gave birth to more newspapers across India. In
1780, Bernard Messink and Peter Reed started a newspaper called Indian
Gazette, which was to some extent a voice of the East India Company in
India. Further, the country saw the birth of the Calcutta Gazette in 1784,
Bengal Journal by William Duane and Thomas Jones in 1785, Madras
Courier in 1785, Mad ras Gazette in 1795 and India Herald in 1796.
12.3.1 The issue of censorship
Many local newspapers started coming up in Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata
(Calcutta) and Madras, but most of them had a short life. The newspaper
that once was seen as a source of gossi p and rumour and was not taken
seriously gradually started creating inconveniences for the East India
Company in India. It happened because people around started taking the
content of the newspaper seriously, many writers began voicing their
opinion agains t the East India company. This called for the imposition of
censorship on the press. The first censorship was introduced in Madras in
1795 on the newspaper The Madras Gazette, and they were required to
submit all the materials meant for publications.
12.3.2 Acts and Laws to Silence the Press
The start of the 19th century was a real struggle for the press to keep
functioning; they would frequently face confiscation of machinery, thrown
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142 harassment from the EIC. Lord Wellesley and Warren Hastings started the
rigid control of the press.
First Press regulations of 1799: This regulation made it mandatory for the
newspapers to print the name and addresses of printers, editors, and
publishers. How ever, these regulations were later abolished during the term
of Warren Hastings in 18 12. This is the earliest law for the press. Despite
the start of stricter control, many new newspapers were introduced. In 1823,
the first government lithographic press wa s set up at Calcutta (In Bombay
in 1824) and the first Hindi paper 'Udunt Martund' was brought out in
Calcutta.
Adams Regulations 1818: This gave some breather to the editors, but still
contents of the newspapers were closely scrutinized. Around 1821, desp ite
strict rules, Raja Ram Mohan Roy started weekly publications of Sambad
Kaumudi in Bengali and Murat -up-Akhtar in Persian.
Gagging Act 1857: The act brought in mandatory licenses from the
government for owning, running a printing press. It gave more pow er to the
government to prohibit the publication or circulation of newspapers that
seem not to follow certain rules. It empowered the government to ban
publications or disseminate statements of news stories that could incite
hatred or cause Contempt for th e government, stirring unlawful resistance
to weaken the authority. This act was later abolished in June 1858. In 1860,
the Indian Penal Code (IPC) was passed. Even though it was for all sorts of
offenses, the offenses specific to the press like defamation and obscenity
were also included in the IPC.
Vernacular Press Act: After the 1857 revolution, the war for freedom had
received a substantial setback; press censorship after the war became more
blatant. During this time, the responsibility of governance o f India was
shifted from the East India Company to the Crown of England. In the
revolution of 1857, a number of newspapers such as The Hindu, Indian
Mirror, Bangalore, Patriot influenced public opinion at length. The famous
newspaper Amrita Bazar Patrika w hich was printed in Bengali until now
changed over to the English language and changed the course of journalism
drastically. This period witnessed a big boom in the Indian language press.
Newspapers were now available in Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, Punjabi etc. These
newspapers advocated for free speech and propagated liberal ideas, which
worried the colonial rulers. Due to this reason, the Vernacular Press act was
passed on March 1, 1878, to control the newspapers.
Indian Press Act 1910: This had strict censorsh ip on all publications. This
act empowered the government to demand security deposits, which could
be forfeited if found printing any objectionable matter. In addition, police
were granted the power to perform searches and size the publication content
if they felt so. This law was harsh, but its vigorous enforcement made life
difficult for editors and journalists. There were no fewer than 355 cases
between 1910 -and 1914.
The laws and acts to suppress the freedom of speech didn't end with this.
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143 Print Media in India newsgathering through Kaleidoscope and the display of pictures in
newspapers. Other laws such as official secrets act, Incitement of offences
act was added in the Indian Penal code. There were more rules, such as the
Defence of India act and others. During the Second World War the situation
for the Indian press worsened as the government -controlled the flow of
every single international news that was coming in.
12.4 PIONEERS OF PRESS IN INDIA
Raja Ram Mohan Roy: He was considered the father of the Indian Press by
Jawaharlal Nehru. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a scholar, thinker, and a social
reformer. He used print media to put forth his liberal thoughts. He published
Brahmanical Magazine in English. He published Sambad Kaumudi in
Bengali, some news weekly dealing with political, social, and religious
subjects. He also published a newspaper in the Persian language named -
Murat -ul-Akhbar.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak: He was widely seen as the first leader of t he
Independence movement. His two publications Kesari in Marathi and
Mahratta in English regularly critiqued the Britishers on several occasions.
The publication initially was started along with Gopal Agarkar and
Vishnushastri Chiplunklar, both noted figur es of the Indian freedom
struggle. However, he was later on imprisoned on charges of sedition after
he wrote an article voicing his support to the revolutionaries who tried
assassinating the Chief Presidency Magistrate.
G. Subramania Iyer: He established t wo prominent newspapers: The
Hindu (published till date) and Swadesamitran (Tamil newspaper). He
started Hindu to write about the Indian freedom movement to incite feelings
of patriotism among the people. Due to his clear expression in support of
the freed om fighters, he would constantly be caught up in defamation cases.
Madan Mohan Malaviya : He is popularly known as the founder of the
Banaras Hindu University. He started the English daily title 'The Leader' in
1909 along with Motilal Nehru. His publication s were politically oriented,
and his published several of Mahatma Gandhi's works. Malaviya once saved
Hindustan Times' publication from coming to a standstill by raising rupees
50,000 to acquire the news agency. Later he chaired the news agency from
1924 t o 1946.
Syed Fazl -ul-Hasan: He was an Indian activist, freedom fighter and a noted
Urdu poet, also known by his pen name Hasrat Mohani. He coined the
famous term Inquilab Zindabad (meaning Long live the revolution!). Along
with Swami Kumaranand, he is cons idered the first Indian to demand
complete Independence for India in 1921, during the Ahmedabad Session
of the Indian National Congress. He also published Urdu -e-Mualla, which
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144 12.5 PRESS AFTER INDEPE NDENCE
The press enquiry committee was ri ght after our Independence in 1947, to
examine the press laws and whether they were in line with the fundamental
rights formulated by the constituent assembly. Later, a press commission
was set up under Justice Rajadhyaksha in 1954.
12.5.1 First Press Comm ission - 1954
The commission submitted the annual report in 1954, making several vital
recommendations. It helped in constituting several institutions and
systematically organizing the profession of journalism. It recommended
establishing a Press Council, whose objectives would be to ensure and
safeguard freedom of the press, censor objectionable journalistic conduct,
and encourage responsibility and the thought of public service. It also
recommended the appointment of a wage board for the working journalis ts.
Recommendations for the appointment of the Registrar of Newspapers of
India were also made. The office of the RNI was created on July 1, 1956
12.5.2 Second Press Commission 1978
The government of India established the second press commission on May
29, 1978. The recommendations made by the committee clearly states that
it did not want the press to become a mindless adversary nor be an
unquestioning ally. It wanted the press to play a responsible role in the
development process of the Indian society and economy. It wants the press's
powers to reach the very grassroots level in the community to give people
the opportunity to voice their opinion. Second press commission suggested
the press should be widely accessible to the people if it is to reflect their
aspirations and problems.
Other key recommendations were the establishment of a newspaper
development commission, a body to promote the press's development in
directions that will facilitate the growth in particular of Indian language
newspapers of whateve r circulation category and of local interest and other
publications small and medium size in terms of circulation.
It also recommended the removal of section 5 from the official secrets act.
That deals with the disclosure of the sources by the journalist. Presently in
India the journalists are generally not asked to reveal their sources. While
at the same time, if circumstances demand, the Court can ask for it. There
is no law prohibiting the Court from asking the press to divulge the sources.
Public intere st demands that truth should be revealed in some cases but at
the same it is also in the public interest that individual privacy and
confidence should be protected in society.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Trace the History of Press in India.
_______________________ _____________________________________
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145 Print Media in India ____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ ________________
Who are the Pioneers of Press in India?
_____________ _______________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
12.6 PRESS COUNCIL OF I NDIA - HISTORY
The key reason for constituting a Press Council for the Indian press was to
maintain and improve the standards of the media. The Press Council is
governed under the Press Council of India Act 1978. PCI is a statutory,
autonomous, and quasi -judicial body that a cts as the press's watchdog. It
handles the matter of violations of the freedom of the press and also deals
with the press for violations of any ethics. The revenue for the working of
the press council of India comes from the fee levied on the registered
newspapers. No fees are levied on newspapers with a circulation of less than
5000 copies. The act provides for the selection of the chairperson by a
committee consisting of the chairperson of the Rajya Sabha, the speaker of
Lok Sabha and a person elected by the council members from among
themselves. The term for the chairperson and the member council is for
three years.
12.6.1 Functions of the Press Council of India
1. It safeguards the Independence of the newspapers
2. It constructs a code of conduct havin g high professional standards
3. It emphasizes the promotion of technical and other research -related
areas related to the news.
4. It helps in providing training to new journalists.
5. It ensures the spread of news all over India
6. It ensures supply of ne wspaper from one place to another
7. It helps promote the proper functioning of and processing of the
newspaper.
8. It keeps review of all the production, functioning of the newspaper
9. It ensures that both entertainment and information are balanced in a
newspaper, which will help people understand their rights and
responsibilities.
12.7 CONSTITUTION AND F REEDOM OF SPEECH
The fundamental rights are found in part 3 of the Indian constitution in
articles 12 -36, as there are 24 articles. These rights are no t absolute and are
subject to reasonable restrictions. All citizen's fundamental rights can be
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146 fundamental rights get suspended only during article 352, which states that
the President can proc laim an emergency if he believes that a situation
whereby the security of the country is threatened. Following are the
fundamental rights of an Indian citizen.
Right to equality (14 -18)
Right to liberty (19 -22)
Right against exploitation (23 -24)
Right to f reedom of religion (25 -28)
Cultural and educational rights (29 -30)
Right to constitutional remedies (art 32)
The Indian constitution does not have separate laws on freedom of speech
for the media. But there is an indirect way in which there is a provision for
media freedom. This freedom comes from article 19(1)(a). The article
guarantees freedom of speech and expression, which the country's mass
media enjoys too. However, this is not an absolute right. Our constitution
also has some restrictions in the form of Article 19 (2). This article lays
down certain reasonable restrictions; for example, Contempt of Court is one
of the reasonable restrictions under this article of the Indian constitution.
12.8 PRESS IN INDIA TOD AY
Today India has newspapers in several languages with more than over 1
lakh different publications. These registrations are done with the Registrar
of newspapers for India. The prominent Hindi newspapers are Dainik
Jagran, Dainik Bhaskar, Amar Ujwala, Navbharat Times. Dainik Jagran is
the most read Hindi daily, with Dainik Bhaskar being the second most
popular. The prominent newspapers in English are The Times of India, set
up in 1838 and The Bombay Times, both owned by The Times group. In
recent times the press in India has witnessed a paradigm shift. Everything
today has gone digital. Newspapers and magazines are available online.
With the explosion in the number of internet users globally, media
consumption has genuinely gone digital. Content providers, including
media, are tweaking a variety of content to suit the demand of inexperienced
users. With free content available on the majority of websites, including free
news. It has become crucial for the media companies to survive at a stage
where information is given for free and at the same time look to monetize
it. Despite the new headwinds, digital media companies have created a
space and have a decent online presence. With the explosion in internet use
and better connectivity, news reading habits of individuals are shifting too.
Today, many ne wspapers online have a section that simply summarizes the
news for its audience. It goes under different names on different websites,
such as Hindustan Times has a 'quick reads' section, while the well -known
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147 Print Media in India 12.9 LET’S SUM IT UP
We traced the development of the press since the inception of the printing
technique and right to the very present situation of the print media in our
country today. After the advent of the Bengal Gazette, man y newspapers
came into existence but lived a short life due to severe restrictions from the
East India Company in India. Many legal rules and restrictions were
imposed on the press. The war of Independence in 1857 further stringent
the rules imposed on the printing press. This gave birth to many new leaders,
thinkers, and journalists. From 1914 to 1947, the freedom struggle gained
momentum. The picture of the Indian press completely changed after 1947.
Our first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru was an ardent supporter of the
freedom of the press; the Indian press, in his leadership, once again gained
momentum.
12.10 QUESTIONS
1. _____ were developed for daily reports of local news.
A. Diurnal said
B. Books
C. Coranto
D. Files
2. _______printing involves oil and water, which repel each other. This
technique uses flat stone or metal plate, and areas are worked using a
greasy substance
A. Inkjet printing
B. Etching
C. Lithography
D. Woodblock printing
3. The ____ act brought in mandatory licences from the gover nment for
owning, running a printing press.
A. Gagging Act
B. Adam’s Regulations
C. Vernacular Press Act
D. Indian Press Act
4. ______ Press Commission did not want the press to become a
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148 B. Second
C. Third
D. Fourth
3. Explain in three to five to six sentences, the evolution of the printing
press?
4. Describe the inception of the printing press in India, and what
followed after that? Answer in brief.
5. Explain the functions of the press council of India?
6. How would you describe the press in India today in your own words?
12.11 REFERENCES
Gupta, V. S., and Vir Bala Aggarwal. Handbook of Journalism and Mass
Communication . Concept, 2001.
Raghavan, G. N. S. The press in India, a new history . Gyan Pub lishing
House, 1994.
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149 13
ELECTRONIC MEDIA AND DIGITAL
MEDIA IN INDIA
Unit Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Electronic Media in India
13.2.1 Radio and its key developments
13.2.2 Television and its key developments
13.3 Types of Media ownership
13.4 Regulation in Television
13.4.1 Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
13.4.2 Broadcast Audience Research Council
13.4.3 Indian Broadcasting Foundation
13.5 Digital Media - Introduction
13.6 What all digital media includes
13.7 Features of Digital media
13.8 Developments in the Digital media
13.8.1 Digitization of Print media
13.8.2 Digitisation of Television
13.8.3 Digitisation of Radio
13.9 Paradigm shift in the content of digital media
13.10 Theories of digital media
13.11 Let’s Sum It Up
13.12 Questions
13.13 References
13.0 OBJECTIVES
Ever since the electronic way of communication was introduced, it has been
a boon for society at large as it facilitates speedy information gathering and
dissemination. This speedy movement of messages across the globe has
turned the world today into a 'global village' (term used by Marshall Mc
Luhan). Both electronic and digital media have changed our ability to store
and exchange information. In the last unit, we studied the situation of print
media in India. In this unit, we will look at the evolution and status of
electronic media in India. By the end of this unit, the learner will be able to munotes.in

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150 Describe the growth of electronic media in India
Summarize the self -regulation bodies of the Television indus try.
Differentiation between types of media ownership
Articulate the changes brought by digitization in the old media
Evaluate a paradigm shift in the content of digital media.
13.1 INTRODUCTION
As the name suggests, electronic media is the one where in formation is
shared through an electronic medium. This electronic medium is an
advanced way of sharing information. The main types of electronic media
include television, mobile phones etc. An electronic medium is an upgrade
from the print medium in the se nse that, in electronic media, Live show, live
reporting is possible as one can immediately update and broadcast the
information. Meanwhile, digital media is transmitted through digital data.
The message moves through digital cables or satellites, sending binary
signals 0s and 1s to devices that then decode it into text, pictures, videos,
graphics and more. Anytime a person opens a web0 -based system, they are
consuming digital media. Digital media today has many forms such as
videos, advertisements, music, podcasts, virtual reality, or even digital art.
13.2 ELECTRONIC MEDI A IN INDIA
Broadcasting is one the most popular and famous mediums of
communicating with the masses. Although the majority even today, prefer
print media for their daily news update. Thi s has not changed the popularity
of broadcasting in India; in fact, it is only spreading more rapidly today.
13.2.1 Radio and its key Developments
Radio broadcasting in India was first taken up by a group of young
enthusiasts who started operating radio clubs in India. It was during this
time that radio clubs were a tremendous success in Europe and the United
States. However, once the radio came into the hands of the colonial
government, it was renamed as Indian state broadcasting services. The name
was later on changed to All India Radio. The growth of AIR, which was
later known as Akashvani, over the years has been phenomenal. Today AIR
has a reach of 92% of the country's area and 99.91% of the total population.
Until 1995, the public broadcaster enjoye d the radio monopoly. Things
changed after the Supreme Court ruling in 1995 that declared India's
airwaves as 'public property. In 1999, the government of India allowed
private players to enter the FM Broadcasting sector. It had plans to offer 10 -
year lice nses to private players in across 40 cities. The private broadcasters
were allowed to broadcast music and entertainment -based programs. The
private broadcasters were not allowed to broadcast news or current affairs.
After this decision, few private broadca sters were interested in buying slots
for their radio channel. In 2001, the first private radio station Radio City
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151 Electronic Media and Digital Media in India licenses to function as private FM radio. Some of the famous radio ne tworks
are Sun TV, India FM radio, Hitz FM Radio India, and others. However,
radio broadcasting in India is not an immensely popular industry and the
advertising revenues have been low for a long time.
13.2.2 Television and its key developments
Up until the 1990s, Doordarshan enjoyed a monopoly in broadcasting in
India. But the entry of private players such as CNN, Star Plus, and Zee TV
in the 1990s, changed the broadcasting business completely. Doordarshan
broadcasting was already immensely popular in th e 1980s due to popular
serials such as Hum Log. This had triggered a breather demand for TV sets
and more such programs. Private television started in Maharashtra and
Gujarat through private entrepreneurs. These private players wired the
apartment building s and charged a monetary fee to transmit films and
serials —television broadcasting with the accessibility of foreign satellite
channels. During the gulf war, a private Hong Kong -based TV network,
STAR -TV became quite famous. By the year 2000, India had more than 40
private television networks, including SONY, CNN, BBC, and many more.
Slowly Indian televisions became more entertainment -driven with a gradual
change in time. Today private networks domi nate the market, and
advertisers are gaining most of the attention from prime -time slots. The
leading private channels in India include MTV, Zee Tv, Sony and many
more.
13.3 TYPES OF MEDIA OWNERSHIP
There are four major types of media ownership
Chain Owne rship: In chain ownership, a single media company owns
numerous outlets but in a single medium. For example, a company into the
newspaper publishing business will own newspapers in different languages
that can have different names as well as unique styles of writing. Chain
ownership is most commonly seen in newspapers. The best example for the
same is the Times of India, Ananda Bazar Patrika, Hindustan Times etc.
Cross - Media Ownership: When a company operates in more than one
medium. For example, a company can have their own television channel
and can be an owner of a newspaper or a magazine. Cross -media ownership
functions across various carriers. The best example for cross -media
ownership is Times Group, Network 18 Group, ABP Group, etc.
Conglomerate owne rship: A conglomerate ownership owns several
businesses other than in the media business. For example, a publishing
company can be into other businesses such as manufacturing of paper,
rubber industry or chemical industry. Under such kind of ownership, the
primary business of a company could be something that gives them a higher
profit, and they would be into media business only for prestige and power
and to exercise political and social influence in the society. In India there
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152 Public Relations Theory and Practice
152 companies ranging from media distribution to network business. They own
newspapers, radio, and TV channels.
Horizontal and Vertical Integration: Horizontal integration means a
media company having a presence across diff erent mediums such as TV and
FM radio, magazine, books. This is beneficial for a company and generates
more revenue for the readers. Meanwhile, vertical integration means a
media company may own the newspaper business that is used later on for
printing pur poses or may be an owner too of the ink that is used in the
printing. For example, a film company may not only make movies but also
distribute them in their own cinema chains.
Such type of media ownership can prove to be a hindrance for a developing
natio n because it minimizes the chances of different opinions. To some
extent, the freedom of media is compromised too. Take a look at the
country's print media outlets, it is highly concentrated in the hands of four
key players. These include Dainik Jagran, Hi ndustan, Dainik Bhaskar and
Amar Ujwala. The key reason for media concentration in the hands of
certain few big players is that India does not have any law that prevents
media concentration. Certain self -regulatory bodies like the Broadcast
Audience Resear ch Council, that measure television audiences and cater to
the interests of the industry they represent. There are other self -regulatory
bodies too, such as the News Broadcasters Association (NBA) and Indian
Broadcasting Foundation (IBF) set the rules and practice self -regulation.
But these bodies do not control market concentration.
13.4 REGULATION IN T ELEVISION
13.4.1 TRAI: Since 2004, the broadcasting sector in India has been
regulated by TRAI. This body has the power to regulate tariffs, including
the MRPs of the channel, it oversees the terms of interconnection between
broadcasters and distributors and sets the standards for quality of the service
at the consumer end. The parliament in India tried to establish a specialized
regulator for the broadcast ing sector but failed to set -up one. Due to the
absence of an independent broadcasting regulator, it was TRAI that was
entrusted with the responsibilities. At the same time, the TRAI laws were
not amended to accommodate the expertise and resources required to
regulate the broadcast sector. Till date, TRAI is India's telecom and
television regulator.
13.4.2 Broadcast Audience Research Council: This is India's television
measurement industry body. It measures the TRP of TV serials, movies and
shows. They col lect data from households and analyze them so that different
ratings can be given to different channels —they record the viewing by
installing a Bar -o meter in the household to record the viewing details. Once
the data collected through these meters is anal yzed, the shows are then rated.
BARC is a joint industry body. It represents broadcasters, advertisers, and
other media agencies. This body shares its findings on its website. Also, it
has certain specific insights generated for its clients (advertisers, m edia
agencies). The body is founded by organizations that represent broadcasters munotes.in

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153 Electronic Media and Digital Media in India in India, such as the Indian Broadcasters Foundation (IBF), Indian Society
of Advertisers (ISA), Advertising Agencies Association of India (AAAI)
13.4.3 Indian Broadcasting F oundation (IBF): This body was established
in 1999, It promotes the Interest of the Indian television industry. IBF
consists of. Major broadcasters with more than 250 channels. It is a
protector and promoter of the interests of its members and freedom of
electronic media in the world's largest democracy. The Indian Broadcasting
Foundation (IBF), the premier organisation for broadcasters, has changed
its name to Indian Broadcasting and Digital Foundation in order to bring
together all digital over -the-top st reaming firms under one roof (IBDF).
IBDF is now establishing a new wholly owned company to handle all
matters pertaining to digital media. The foundation will also set up a self -
regulatory body in compliance with the government's announcement of the
Infor mation Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics
Code) Rules, 2021. (SRB). Over the years, IBF has played a significant role
in assisting the government in creating research -based regulatory and policy
measures to support the broadcastin g sector, which serves as the
cornerstone of the Indian media and entertainment sector.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
What are the types of Media Ownership?
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________ ___________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ ____________ ___
How did Electronic Media change the overall media landscape in India?
____________________________________________________________
_________ ___________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ _______________
13.5 DIGITAL MEDIA
The term digital media is interchangeably used with new media, online
media, m ultimedia, interactive media etc. The definition of all of these
terms to some extent, overlap, but they mean different things in different
contexts. Let's understand the meaning of digital media. The digital media
process involves breaking down the inform ation into binaries (1s and 0s),
transmitting them through wires, or broadcast frequency to a destination and
then it is assembled back again into its original form, giving us the visuals
or texts that humans understand easily. Digital media refers to cont ent that
has been encoded in a digital form, such as music can be an audio file. Once
it is encoded, it can be edited and distributed over computer networks. A
few examples of digital media file types are MP3, AVI, JPEG etc. Our
Media industry went through a drastic change with the advent of the internet
20 years ago. This changed the way we consume content, communicate with
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154 13.6 WHAT ALL DIGITA L MEDIA INCLUDES
Audio: Audio form of digital media includes radio stations, p odcasts, and
audiobooks. There are thousands of options to pick from in apps such as
Spotify, Apple Music, and amazon prime music.
Video: Digital media outlets are the majority of visuals. This can range from
online streaming platforms such as Netflix, pri me, Sony Liv such apps, to
simulators used in many fields for training purposes.
Social Media: social media includes sites such as Twitter, Facebook,
Instagram, LinkedIn, and Snapchat, which provides a platform to the users
to communicate through texts, ph otographs, and videos.
Advertising: Advertising online is available on almost every web page. The
advertising strategy online today has changed from the earlier one where
their pop -ups on every website along with intrusive auto -play ads. Today
advertisers use other methods of gaining consumer attention.
News, literature and more: The Internet is full of information in all and
every form. The popularity of websites like Wikipedia and other e -reading
websites is proof of the importance of details in todays an d age.
13.7 FEATURES OF A D IGITAL MEDIA
Interactivity : Digital media goes a step beyond the traditional media in
interactivity. It allows people to rate, share, and like on a text. This is a huge
shift from limited interactivity with the traditional mediu m to immediate
reaction and feedback. Many media outlets today are offering space in their
column online for publishing user -generated content. Other than writing
producing content, an individual can share his/her opinions on Facebook,
Twitter, and Instagr am as well.
Digital : All the data in the digital media process can be converted into
numbers. This gives an option to program, alter any content or subject it to
algorithmic manipulation. The file can be compressed or decompressed
using algorithms.
Converg ence : All mediums are available today on a single platform. One
can listen to audio, while typing a text, at the same time, immediately switch
to watching a video. Today print has changed to e -paper, and television
serials and films can be viewed on OTT pl atforms, all on mobile or a single
device itself.
Immediacy : If any media story has to be updated, then the story can be
immediately updated on the respective website. One will not have to wait
for the next day's newspaper to get printed with fresh details . The same goes
for new releases on the OTT platform. The viewership data is immediately
available to the application owners, which helps them determine if the
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155 Electronic Media and Digital Media in India 13.8 DIGITAL MEDIA D EVELOPMENTS IN THE
INDIAN CONTEXT
13.8.1 Digiti zation of the Print Media
The first paper to start its website in India was The Hindu, in the year 1995.
The first regional paper to do the same was Malayala Manorama in 2007,
as it launched a mobile app. In the year 2009 -2010 other newspaper joined
the suit too, by launching their mobile app. Fast forwards 2022, one app that
has emerged as a popular news app is Inshorts. The majority of the
youngsters in urban cities consume news through online platforms. To make
content easily accessible by the audience s. Many media companies explored
the field of search engine optimization and digital marketing. Today we see
lots of experiments in the way the news is getting delivered to the audience
on the online platform. One such experiment was the immersive
storytel ling, which gives the viewer the feeling of being a part of the story.
This is done by making use of virtual and augmented reality technologies.
Malayala Manorama started offering 360 -degree videos.
13.8.2 Digitisation of Television
Creating one's own cha nnel and producing content for mass viewing was
once a farfetched reality for a commoner. With the availability of cheap
smartphones and internet access today YouTube is full of channels by
bloggers and the average person who are the major content creators . Today
people have an alternative to viewing their favourite programs on online
platforms. Earlier, if one had to choose from the limited content shown on
the television for viewing. With the availability of OTT platforms and
various streaming websites, t he pace, and the choice of content for viewing
are now in the hands of an individual. The explosion in the popularity of the
OTT platforms is a prof that the television was failing to satisfy the demand
for the diverse interests of the audiences. OTT today provides flexibility in
content consumption in the sense that it allows individuals to decide their
own pace of viewing. One can watch a complete series in a day or can spread
out its viewing through the month or a year without any pressure.
13.8.3 Digit isation of Radio
Today there are companies that have internet -based radio. This shift
occurred because the internet has taken over everything. It only made sense
that in order to keep the radio industry alive, one has to change with the
times. Internet rad io is free from the excess noise that is once encountered
in the traditional radio, when they are shifting through frequencies. Radio
stations today have their own websites and apps where audiences can stream
content of their choice. One best example of th e internet radio is Bloomberg
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156 13.9 PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE CONTENT OF DI GITAL
MEDIA
Rise of Database Journalism: With almost every company having its
website online and every ministry in the country publishing monthly,
quarterly and yearly data, database journalism is on the rise. This makes it
easier for not only a journalist but also a citizen, in general, to access the
information without any hassle and delay. Any changes in the trend can
immediately be reported by the journalist or conveyed by a Public Relations
professional to its publics.
Digital Storytelling: Also known as digital documentaries, digital essays
or interactive storytelling uses a variety of multimedia, including graphics,
audio -video, and web publishing.
Mapping in Journalism: You all must have seen how weather reporting is
done on television. All this is done with the help of digital tools. Today we
are digital savvy, and if any news of an earthquake or war field is to be
shown in detail, it can easily be generated via digital tools. It makes the
whole experience a reality for the viewer.
13.10 THEORIES OF DI GITAL MEDIA
Marshall McLuhan: Marshall McLuhan, a communication theorist,
believed that technology is an 'extension of the body'. This idea was
introduced during the mechanical age. For example, one may say that bows
and spears are an extension of hands and nails and teeth for a human being,
clothing is an extension of skin, and the wheel is an extension of the human
foot in rotation. In the same way Mc Luhan believed media is an extension
of human senses, which is of, sight and sound. Radio and telephone function
as long -distance ears, while visual media is an extension of visual function.
This idea of McLuhan is even applicable in the electric age. Today
electronic media has taken over functions of information management,
storage retrieval, and information processing, which is a function of the
central nervous system.
Jean Baudrillard: With the invention of the innovat ive technology
alongside globalization and commodification in societies across the world
the clear distinction between the object and the reality has disappeared.
Today, the new state of reality is simulation. In Ecstasy of Communication,
Baudrillard state s that today we are in an era of hyper -reality.
13.11 LET’S SUM IT U P
In this unit, we discussed the status of electronic media in the country. We
look at the developments today in the field of electronic media and briefly
touch upon the various self -regulating bodies of the television industry.
Media after globalization has become an industry. Electronic media made
it easier for people to communicate with the masses. The introduction of
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157 Electronic Media and Digital Media in India the country. The Indian media industry has embraced digital platforms,
including print, TV, and radio. One downside of digital media today is the
lack of any regulatory body to oversee the negativity that comes with this
platform. Otherwise, if put to 100% beneficial use, digital media has the
potential to transform society in leaps and bounds.
13.12 QUESTIONS
1. _______ believed that technology is an 'extension of the body
a. Marshall Mc Luhan
b. Raymond Williams
c. Jean Baudrillard
d. Jacques Lac an
2. Since 2004, the broadcasting sector in India has been regulated by
_______
a. Telecom regulatory Authority of India
b. Broadcast Audience Research Council
c. Indian Broadcasting Foundation
d. Advertising Agencies Association of India
3. Write down examples of changes in media ownership and
conglomerate ownership in India? Answer in six -seven sentences
4. Describe in detail the digitization of print media? Answer in three -
four lines?
5. What changes have you noticed in the old media after digitisati on?
Explain in five -six lines?
13.13 REFERENCES
Dewdney, Andrew, and Peter Ride. The Digital Media Handbook .
Routledge, 2013.
Jha, Lata. “Home / Industry / Media / Indian Broadcasting Foundation to be
renamed.” Mint , 27 May 2021,
https://www.livemint.com/ industry/media/indian -broadcasting -foundation -
to-be-renamed -11622104131402.html. Accessed 22 September 2022.
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